[1강 - Exercise 1]

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EBS 수능특강 Light 영어독해연습 (2022) – 지문정리 (문제 제작용)

Jokes, by definition, are not to be taken seriously. We brush off their effects by saying, "It's just a joke," or "I'm only joking." We dismiss individuals we don't respect in the same way: "He's a total joke." When telling jokes, we agree that they are best delivered lightly, off-the-cuff - however much effort may go into this appearance of levity. And that's the extraordinary thing about jokes, really: trivial as we insist they are, still we treasure them. We commit them carefully to memory and share them with people we love or people we want to love us. We support a massive and increasingly global joke-manufacturing industry of stand-up comedians and all sorts of backroom gag-smiths: sitcom writers, radio DJs, journalists. A sense of humor is one of our most valued social assets; have you met a single person who will cheerfully admit that they don't have one?

[1강 - Exercise 2]

The concept of sequels originated in the movie context. In the 1920s and 1930s, Hollywood studios had "B units" which produced what was then called "series" - loosely connected episodes of a popular character's adventures, such as Charlie Chan, Mr. Moto, or Cisco Kid. These serials were manufactured for a low budget and with limited artistic ambitions. Beneath the Planet of the Apes, made in 1970 by 20th Century Fox, is often considered the first "modern" sequel - the continuation of the studio's previous box office hit Planet of the Apes, itself the screen adaption of Pierre Boulle's classic novel. Rather than being the result of strategic managerial thinking, it was the studio's then-troubled financial state that made its managers look for ways to exploit its existing properties. At a time when sequels were basically considered as both artistically inferior and commercially unattractive, Fox made what has developed over the following decades into a family brand with numerous products attached to it.

[1강 - Exercise 3]

You have an old house and everything is a bit outdated, but you're satisfied. You add a room air conditioner during one particularly hot summer. A few years later, when you have more money, you decide to add a central air-conditioning system. But you don't remove that room unit in the bedroom - why would you? It might come in handy and it's already there, bolted to the wall. Then a few years later, you have a catastrophic plumbing problem - pipes burst in the walls. The plumbers need to break open the walls and run new pipes, but your central air-conditioning system is now in the way, where some of their pipes would ideally go. So they run the pipes through the attic, the long way around. This works fine until one particularly cold winter when your uninsulated attic causes your pipes to freeze. These pipes wouldn't have frozen if you had run them through the walls, which you couldn't do because of the central air-conditioning. If you had planned all this from the start, you would have done things differently, but you didn't - you added things one thing at a time, as and when you needed them.

[1강 - Exercise 4]

In the short run - the cyclical relationship - GDP and happiness go up and down together. During the Great Recession, for example, happiness in the United States collapsed as the economy contracted and then recovered as GDP turned upward. But over the long run - the trend relationship - countries with more rapid economic growth do not experience a greater increase in happiness. Indeed, in the United States, the trend in happiness has been flat for over seven decades, a period in which real GDP per capita more than tripled. Even more spectacular, China's life satisfaction was no higher in 2010 than in 1990, despite an unprecedented fourfold multiplication of real GDP per capita in only two decades. There are some scholars who claim to find that happiness trends upward along with GDP, but they are confusing the positive short-term relationship with the nil long-term relationship. The absence of a long-term relationship suggests that it is time to reconsider the long-held belief that economic growth increases human well-being.

[1강 - Exercise 5]

Just the other day, a dear friend of mine - a retired brigadier - was narrating the story of how a line he heard many, many years ago impacted him deeply and shaped his life. It was his first week in the army. It was a Sunday morning. The task ahead was rather simple. They had to run ten miles. My friend recalls having started enthusiastically, and then quickly tiring out. After running half the distance, he felt he couldn't continue any longer. He felt his legs would fold up and he'd collapse. And just as he was about to give up and stop, he heard his commanding officer say to him, 'Come on, young man. Until now you've been running with your legs. Now run with your mind!' Those words seemed to work like magic. While my friend doesn't quite recall what happened thereafter, all he remembers is that he kept running. He finished the entire ten-mile run. And to this day, he often hears the officer's words echoing in his mind.

[1강 - Exercise 6]

In Thinking, Fast and Slow, Nobel Prize-winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman points out an emotional benefit of motivated reasoning: resilience. It's easier to bounce back from a failure if you can blame it on anyone but yourself. He uses the example of a door-to-door salesperson, a job that involves long strings of rejection: "When one has just had a door slammed in one's face by an angry homemaker, the thought that 'she was an awful woman' is clearly superior to 'I am an inept salesperson.'" But are those really our only two options? We could instead tell ourselves, "Yes, I screwed up that sale. But everyone makes mistakes." Or "Yes, I screwed up that sale. Still, I'm improving - I used to get doors slammed in my face every day, and now it only happens every week!" Surely we can find a way to bounce back from our setbacks that doesn't require us to blame them on other people - an honest coping strategy.

[1강 - Exercise 7]

If you visit a physician's office, your behavior is part of a large context that has to do with the specific goals of the visit, your overall plan for the day, and the wider plans and intentions of your life, at varied time scales, relative to which your visit may be of some significance or not. Everything you do in the "scene" at that office is informed by these multiple contents, even if you do not need to hold them all in mind in order to behave coherently. The same happens with the physician, relative to his role in the scene. In a state of diminished consciousness, however, all that background influence is reduced to little or nothing. The behavior is controlled by immediate cues, devoid of any insertion in the wider context. For example, picking up a glass and drinking from it makes sense if you are thirsty, and that action does not need to connect with the broader context.

[1강 - Exercise 8]

Joseph Schumpeter once said that an invention that is not widely used is irrelevant to human affairs. There are thousands of ingenious and admirable inventions that were neither carried out in large scale nor used by millions of people to change the world. Hero of Alexandria in the first century produced a steam engine by jet action, but it was treated as a curiosity and did not lead to benefits for society. Leonardo da Vinci invented a number of flying machines, but there is no record that they were ever built to change transportation or warfare. Crawford Long of Georgia actually used ether for anesthesia in surgery a few years before William Morton in Massachusetts, but Long did not publish his results and had no influence in subsequent medical history. Out of the many thousands of inventions in history, only a few were able to travel the long and difficult path from discovery to development, to be manufactured on a large scale, and to be sold widely in the marketplace, and effect significant change in the world.

[1강 - Exercise 9]

Try to abide by the rule that when you advocate changing something, you should make sure you understand why it is the way it is in the first place. This rule is known as Chesterton's fence, after G. K. Chesterton, the British writer who proposed it in an essay in 1929. Imagine you discover a road that has a fence built across it for no particular reason you can see. You say to yourself, "Why would someone build a fence here? This seems unnecessary and stupid, let's tear it down." But if you don't understand why the fence is there, Chesterton argued, you can't be confident that it's okay to tear it down. Long-standing customs or institutions are like those fences, he said. Naive reformers look at them and say, "I don't see the use of this; let's clear it away." But more thoughtful reformers reply, "If you don't see the use of it, I certainly won't let you clear it away. Go away and think. Then, when you can come back and tell me that you do see the use of it, I may allow you to destroy it."

[1강 - Exercise 10]

My friend Mary Pat has a smart and capable 16-year-old grandson. He was not doing his best in school, much to his parents' dismay. One day he asked his mother if he could dye his light brown hair. "What color?" she asked. "Bright blue!" he said with enthusiasm. Sensing an opportunity here, Mom replied only with a number. "3.8." Shorthand for, "If you want blue hair you must earn a 3.8 grade point average in school. Otherwise I will say NO to this crazy color!" Mary Pat saw her grandson a few months later sporting bright yellow hair. "I thought you were going to dye your hair blue," she said quizzically. Greg's answer was short: "3.5." When Greg and his mom realized a 3.8 grade point average wasn't going to happen they adjusted his goal to one more attainable, and everyone was happy. Goals motivate only when they are attainable. Sometimes they need to change to fit the individual and the circumstances.

[2강 - Exercise 1]

In peer-reviewed publications, scholars who are at arm's length from one another evaluate a new experiment, report, theory, or claim. They must be expert in the domain they're evaluating. The method is far from foolproof, and peer-reviewed findings are sometimes overturned, or papers retracted. Peer review is not the only system to rely on, but it provides a good foundation in helping us to draw our own conclusions, and like democracy, it's the best such system we have. If something appears in Nature, The Lancet, or Cell, for example, you can be sure it went through rigorous peer review. As when trying to decide whether to trust a tabloid or a serious news organization, the odds are better that a paper published in a peer reviewed journal is correct.

[2강 - Exercise 2]

In a low-income society, when people have many children they tend to spend whatever money they have on keeping those children fed, so there is little left over to invest in future economic productivity (including education for children). This is a situation that tends to lead to continuing poverty. If there is no surplus income, there is nothing for the government to tax, so governments don't expand infrastructure: they don't build roads to rural areas so farmers can get their product to market - or water treatment facilities, or electricity grids, or schools. If farmers can't get their products to market, they may eventually give up and move to the cities where they strain whatever support infrastructure does exist. One of the best hopes for a society in this kind of bind is to reduce fertility.

[2강 - Exercise 3]

The idea that the effect of technology on work might depend upon the interaction between these two rival forces - a harmful substituting force and a helpful complementing force - is not new. However, these forces tend not to be explained in a particularly clear way. Books, articles, and reports on automation can be confusing, hinting at these two effects but often using wildly different terms. Technology, they say, displaces and augments, replaces and enhances, devalues and empowers, disrupts and sustains, destroys and creates. The challenge is to compete with computers and to cooperate with them, to race against the machines and to run alongside them. There is talk of the rise of machines and the advance of humans, of threatening robots and comforting co-bots, of the artificial intelligence of machines and the augmented intelligence of human beings. The future, they say, holds both obsolescence and ever-greater relevance; technology is a threat and an opportunity, a rival and a partner, a foe and a friend.

[2강 - Exercise 4]

Motivational psychologists explain human behavior in terms of deep-seated psychological fears, desires, and needs. These needs include self-esteem, social approval, and a sense of efficacy. Motivational psychology helps us understand, for example, why almost all German diplomats before World War I gave false or misleading reports on the likely reactions of European countries to Austrian and German military moves. The reason is that they were simply frightened of the consequences of not telling the notoriously intolerant German foreign ministry what it wanted to hear. The one German diplomat who accurately reported the likely response of Britain to a German violation of Belgian neutrality, Ambassador Prince Karl Lichnowsky in London, was dismissed in Berlin as having "gone native," a judgmental error that itself can be explained in terms of a well-documented motivational-psychological tendency: namely, the desire to avoid the psychological pain of admitting one's own error. Because Germany's entire strategy for swift victory in 1914 depended on Britain staying out of the war, Lichnowsky's accurate reports would have been extremely unsettling if they had been accepted.

[2강 - Exercise 5]

Capitalism as an economic system thrives on the essential role played by failure in the subject's satisfaction. Without our enjoyment of failure and our constitutive allergy to success, capitalism would never have developed. Although champions of the capitalist system preach success and the system's most fervent defenders are the successful rather than the downtrodden, their professions of success mask the key role that failure has in the system. Just on a psychic level, a sense of failure or dissatisfaction drives the capitalist to create new products or find new markets for existing products, and it prompts the consumer to purchase new commodities. The system itself expands because failure functions as an economic engine for individual capitalists and consumers. Even those who are successful find motivation in the fear of future failure. Scarcity is always just around the corner.

[2강 - Exercise 6]

Leslie doesn't realize it, but she stalled out from her fear of failure. She imagined hundreds of reasons why her ideas might not work, and then used these reasons as "legitimate" excuses for not taking action. Leslie needed to face up to the fact that she concocted her own reasons for failing to act, and that the development of those reasons, if not grasped and eliminated, could lead to her being stymied further. Leslie functions like many of those who never go forward with their ideas - the professor who never finishes writing his book, the artist who never paints the picture she dreams about and mentions to others, the business person who has a wonderful money-making scheme but never implements it. The fear of failure in these people extends beyond an inability to reach a level of success or a level of perfection. To these people - and Leslie might well be one of them - if their project isn't flawless, if it isn't of Nobel Prize quality, then, in their minds, it's a failure, and they will delay taking action because they cannot tolerate being imperfect.

[2강 - Exercise 7]

Automation is what most professionals have in mind when they think of the relevance of technology for their disciplines. They think of how they work today, they identify some inefficient activities, and then they imagine computerizing them. Their focus is often on streamlining manual or administrative work. Old ways of operating are not discarded. Instead, a drive for efficiencies and cost-savings leads to an optimization of traditional professional work. Although adjustment in this spirit could be undertaken by introducing better manual systems, most current streamlining across the professions involves the deployment of technology. This automation therefore complements but does not fundamentally change the central way in which services are delivered. Automation is the comfort zone of technological change for most professionals. They recognize great scope for technology in support of their current ways of working.

[2강 - Exercise 8]

Interdependence is where the condition of one depends on another and vice versa. Simply put, interdependence means mutual dependence. Such a situation is neither good nor bad in itself, and there can be more or less of it. Marriages are a good example of highly interdependent relationships. The traditional Christian marriage vow commits both partners to stick with it "for richer, for poorer, for better, or for worse." Interdependence among countries sometimes means richer, sometimes poorer, sometimes for better, sometimes for worse. In the eighteenth century, Jean-Jacques Rousseau pointed out that along with interdependence comes friction and conflict. His "solution" was isolation and separation, but that is seldom possible in a globalized world. When countries try isolation, as with the cases of North Korea today and Myanmar (formerly Burma) until quite recently, it comes at enormous economic cost. It is not easy for countries to divorce the rest of the world.

[2강 - Exercise 9]

When the information patterns of human mentality are successfully instantiated in a digital form, the potential arises to make a large (theoretically unlimited) number of copies of the autonomous agent. Each replica or simulated self will then be able to perform functions that previously required the direct control of the embodied consciousness, thus creating a group or army of selves to multiply the impact and functionality of the authoring consciousness. In contemporary culture, the benefits and drawbacks of multitasking, that is, dividing consciousness into more than one activity at the same time, are often discussed and debated. In an immersive world filled with AI-equipped avatars, the self will have the unprecedented ability to simultaneously execute multiple tasks with each of its intelligent agents being able to fully focus on its assigned activity. Thus, the development of autonomous agents will help achieve the coexistence of multitasking and undivided attention.

[2강 - Exercise 10]

If your dog pesters you for petting when you need to be doing something else, break off visual contact with him. You can use your torso to push him away with a body block (remember not to use your hands) or turn your head away (chin raised) in a benevolent but royal dismissal. It's amazing how fast dogs will go away if you break off visual contact with them. It's equally notable how hard it is for us humans to do that when we're trying to get our dogs to do something. All of our instincts seem to have us look at our dog, just as primates do when they are trying to communicate directly with another individual in the troop. But the look that works best, that we use ourselves when we're not thinking about it, is that slightly snobby, hard-to-get look when we turn our head away in dismissal. It works with dogs as well as with humans. Honest. Dogs can take you for granted just as anyone else in your social group can, and most of us hate being taken for granted. You might be stuck with it from some of the people you know, but you don't have to put up with it from your dog.

[3강 - Exercise 1]

Many animals live a life that I would just as soon forgo, not because it ends in tragedy, but because their approach to living is one of endless conflict. Imagine being a seagull and spending your entire life fighting other seagulls for scraps. What makes us so lucky is the pure happenstance that we evolved to be (mostly) good to one another. Our cooperative nature also set the stage for the evolution of our amazing brain. Our sociality made us smarter individually, but, far more important, it connected our minds to others' minds in a manner that massively increased our knowledge and computing power. As a result, we long ago surpassed the predators that hunted us on the savannah, and are now holding most of the pathogens at bay that are a much greater threat than predators ever were. For the first time in history, we no longer bury almost half our children before they reach adulthood. Evolution is brutal, but those of us with the good fortune to live in established democracies have used the tools that evolution gave us to create unprecedentedly safe and satisfying lives.

[3강 - Exercise 2]

Experts agree that Jackson Pollock had little native talent for art, and when you look at his early products, it showed. They also agree that he became one of the greatest American painters of the twentieth century and that he revolutionized modern art. How did he go from point A to point B? It's the result of hard work and dedication. Pollock was wildly in love with the idea of being an artist. He thought about art all the time, and he did it all the time. Because he was so enthusiastic, he got others to take him seriously and mentor him until he mastered all there was to master and began to produce startlingly original works. His "poured" paintings, each completely unique, allowed him to draw from his unconscious mind and convey a huge range of feeling. Several years ago, I was privileged to see a show of these paintings at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. I was stunned by the power and beauty of each work.

[3강 - Exercise 3]

Evolution has taught the animal kingdom plenty of labor-saving shortcuts. One of these is to remain sensitive to the alarm calls of other species. The most alert and insecure of woodland creatures form part of a network of alarms; the birds, squirrels and deer are all tuned into each other's transmissions. This codependency will be found all over the world. In the African savannah, wildebeest mix with zebras to share their awareness. The wildebeest have poor vision and a strong sense of smell, but the zebras have good vision and a weaker sense of smell. Together they notice more and alert each other to danger. We may think we are being very stealthy by creeping up on a deer from downwind, but if we behave in a way that worries the songbirds overhead, we will not get anywhere near the deer. Equally, a deer downwind of us may pick up our scent long before a wren in a low bush sees us, and his warning cough-like call will work perfectly well for the bird.

[3강 - Exercise 4]

The idea that we can cultivate the soul or the self like a garden goes back to ancient times and is beginning to be applied to the brain in contemporary science. It is, of course, replacing one metaphor with another but we cannot think in any sophisticated way without metaphors. Furthermore, this one is more accurate. The cells that create our neural networks grow in the form of tree-like branching structures and were originally named dendrites after the Latin word for tree because of their visual similarity to one. This resemblance, it has recently been discovered, reflects the fact that neuronal arbours and plants grow according to the operation of the same three mathematical laws. A deeper similarity can be found in the active process of pruning and weeding that maintains the health of our neural networks and is carried out by a group of cells which function as the brain's resident gardeners.

[3강 - Exercise 5]

A director of a play has a peculiar job. For weeks, she orchestrates every move made by various people in a variety of roles, from actors to support personnel. Little happens without her intervention in one way or another. When the play opens, however, the director is essentially useless. If the cast and crew still need her, she is a failure. Teaching is, or at least ought to be, like that. Every day, the teacher should make himself increasingly useless in his students' lives. These kinds of teachers do not provide solutions when students can figure things out for themselves. They provide directions and guidelines for quality, but they leave some ambiguity, choice, and flexibility so that students have to make leaps of transfer and apply common sense. They take careful measure of how much responsibility children can manage, making sure to give them that much - and coaching for a bit more as well.

[3강 - Exercise 6]

Strengths are contextual. Any personal quality can be either an aptitude or a handicap, depending on the situation. Let's say you have difficulty reading printed text. This might understandably seem like a shortcoming, especially if you want to be a literary critic, a profession heavily dependent on the parsing of texts. But if you want to be an astronomer, the same apparent shortcoming could turn into an unexpected strength. The brains of many people who have trouble reading are better at detecting black holes and other celestial anomalies in astronomical images than the brains of individuals without reading difficulties. A facility for empathy is an asset for a nurse, but a shortcoming for a military drone pilot. Being tall is an advantage for an NBA player, but a disadvantage for a coal miner.

[3강 - Exercise 7]

Convictions feel certain. But not everything we feel certain about is a conviction. I don't need conviction for anything I'm absolutely or logically certain about. When Rene Descartes declared he was certain that he thinks and exists (popularly, but erroneously, understood as the inference "I think, therefore I am"), he meant he couldn't actively doubt he was thinking at that moment - because doubting is thinking. But it would be odd to say this was Descartes's conviction. Indeed, the interesting thing about convictions is that they are often formed in the face of opposite convictions. Unlike logical certainties like 2 and 2 make 4, or philosophical certainties like Descartes's belief in his own existence, we generally know that others may oppose our convictions. We are aware that our convictions can be doubted and challenged, even if we ourselves just cannot imagine that they are false.

[3강 - Exercise 8]

In daylight, we only perceive full colour and fine detail in the central region of our visual field, with less-defined vision and reduced colour perception from the outer region. Our brain then takes the relatively small amount of detailed colour imagery it is presented with and uses it combined with the less-colourful, less-defined peripheral imagery to interpret the image by comparison to memories stored throughout life. If we see a Y-shaped image on a page, for example, we can interpret it as a three-dimensional representation of a corner, which can in turn be perceived either protruding from the page or depressed within it. Most people see it as a projecting corner, perhaps recalling an early memory that a corner is hard and sharp, discovered when exploring on all fours as an infant. What is important to understand here is that our memory plays a critical role in the interpretation of the visual signals we receive from our photoreceptors. If we wish to become good at spotting things, we need to have built up a substantial store of imagery for comparison.

[3강 - Exercise 9]

One of the most universal characteristics of the passage of time is that it's not universal: everybody experiences it a little bit differently. There's a physics sense in which that's quantifiably true, but most of the differences between our experiences of time are subjective. A full day of work can seem to fly by or drag on endlessly, depending on how you feel about the tasks at hand, and what seems to a parent like a perfectly reasonable wait for an amusement park ride will feel like HOURS to their young children. This difference in subjective experience is exacerbated by the fact that, particularly in the adult world, everybody keeps their own schedule. The person at the supermarket checkout fumbling to find the exact change for their purchases might see this as a good use of time because they have no pressing responsibilities at the moment, while the troubled person behind them is steaming because they're running late for a meeting. Everybody's doing their own thing, at their own pace, and when schedules bump up against each other it can create tension.

[3강 - Exercise 10]

I think intuitively my colleagues and I have gravitated toward the kinds of questions that knock down barriers by challenging past assumptions and create new energy for pursuing solutions along some new pathway. And if we have, it is probably in part because asking a question is a very effective way of introducing a novel way of thinking about something without exposing oneself to judgment. A question, after all, is not a declaration of opinion aggressive enough to draw fire. It is an invitation to think further within a different framing or along a divergent line. If that line of thinking isn't taken up, or fails to lead somewhere valuable, there is no reputational damage to the person who suggested it. And, therefore, a person is more likely to put it out there.

[4강 - Exercise 1]

Our ideas can liberate or imprison us. In a literal sense we create the worlds in which we live; and there is always the possibility of re-creation. As psychologist George A. Kelly put it: "to make sense out of events we thread them through with ideas and to make sense of the ideas we must test them against events." He describes this process as one of successive approximations. The great generative ideas in human history have transformed the world view of their times and helped to reshape their cultures. We make the world we live in and we can remake it. This process of cultural evolution is probably what the comedian George Carlin had in mind when he said, "Just when I found out the meaning of life, they changed it." What is true of the long cycles of creative change in a social culture is also true of the shorter cycles of creative work by individuals and groups.

[4강 - Exercise 2]

Wood was such an essential component of everyday life that one might expect a limit to wood production was responsible for the lack of progress. Almost all the possessions of everyday folk were wooden, while those that were not actually made of wood needed large quantities of wood to produce. In the Middle Ages, around thirty pounds of wood were needed to smelt one pound of iron, for instance. People burned wood in even greater quantities to cook food and heat their houses, and wood was a vital energy source for the major industrial processes of the age: salt-making, brewing, tanning, and dyeing. In the language of chess, wood was an overworked piece. And as the human population grew, and land was cleared for agriculture, forests would have been destroyed, reducing the wood supply still further. You might well think that this would eventually have led to a shortage of wood, hindering further material progress. Popular histories, after all, are full of stories of how using wood led to deforestation and disaster.

[4강 - Exercise 3]

Beyond demographics, increased living standards had a significant consequence for economic growth, which worked through our choices about the kinds of products we purchase. In 1940 you might have spent your money installing plumbing for running water or a toilet, if you didn't already have those things. The same went for air-conditioning, a TV, or a computer at other points in time during the twentieth century. But once we had those goods, then what did we spend our money on? Did people install an extra toilet in their bathroom? Probably not. Instead, as goods became cheaper and we filled up our houses with them, our spending turned toward services. We took advantage of the falling prices and availability of basic goods to take longer and better vacations, to take classes, to see medical specialists, to get some physical therapy, or to put more data on our phone plans. We took advantage of our success in providing goods to buy more and more services.

[4강 - Exercise 4]

Technology allows research scientists to leverage tiny budgets in astonishing ways. And each of us can now easily contribute to science as an amateur, through the growing prevalence of citizen science, in which the general public helps - often in a small, incremental way - in such tasks as data collection. From categorizing galaxies or plankton to figuring out how proteins fold, everyone can now be a part of the scientific process. And although mathematics might still be the domain of the singular genius, it, too, has a place for the hobbyist or amateur: In the mid-1990s, two high school students discovered a novel additional solution to a problem that Euclid posed and solved thousands of years ago and for which no other method had been found since. There's even an entire domain known as recreational mathematics. What these examples demonstrate is that creative experiments and the right questions are as important as ample funding and infrastructure - and that technology is making this work easier than ever. Little science can still prosper.

[4강 - Exercise 5]

In a study of more than one thousand people in the Netherlands, vacationers exhibited a bigger happiness boost in the weeks before their trip, rather than in the weeks afterward. And people generate even more emotional images of Christmas and New Year's when they imagine these events in November than when they look back in January on their actual experiences. Researchers have suggested that we experience a "wrinkle in time." This is worth keeping in mind if you're moving soon. People feel more negative emotion when thinking about helping friends move in the future compared to remembering helping in the past. And they demand nicer thank-you gifts. If you plan to "reward" your friends for helping you move with nothing more than cheap beer and pizza, they're more likely to be satisfied with the cheap gifts if you have them over the day after the move rather than the day before.

[4강 - Exercise 6]

The secrets of human curiosity have been explored by psychologists, perhaps most famously by Professor George Loewenstein. He writes of a test in which participants were confronted by a grid of squares on a computer screen. They were asked to click five of them. Some participants found that, with each click, another picture of an animal appeared. But a second group saw small component parts of a single animal. With each square they clicked, another part of a greater picture was revealed. This second group were much more likely to keep on clicking squares after the required five, and then keep going until enough of them had been turned that the mystery of the animal's identity had been solved. Brains, concluded the researchers, seem to become spontaneously curious when presented with an 'information set' that they realise is incomplete. 'There is a natural inclination to resolve information gaps,' wrote Loewenstein, 'even for questions of no importance.'

[4강 - Exercise 7]

From a certain perspective, the political and ideological force of "social justice" may be seen - by critics as well as some calculating proponents - as useful in its functional vagueness. Sometimes a term is helpful in politics precisely because it is vague. For example, "maximum feasible participation" became an important part of the War on Poverty because it was unclear and no one could agree on what it actually meant. Social justice is a term that can be used as an all-purpose justification for any progressive-sounding government program or newly discovered or invented right. The term survives because it benefits its champions. It brands opponents as supporters of social injustice, and so as enemies of humankind, without the trouble of making an argument or considering their views. As an ideological marker, "social justice" works best when it is not too sharply defined.

[4강 - Exercise 8]

Nearly all of us live in a political community, usually a state, and abide by its rules. Whether our current nation is open or authoritarian, if we leave we are likely to find ourselves in another country with its own, possibly different rules. Even if we did find a corner of the world where states and laws did not exist, chances are it would not be a place worth living in. We come together for the sake of community and live under laws for good reason, and our lives are shaped by the politically organized unit in which we live. Aristotle believed that the state was a "creation of nature" that came before the individual. After all, people when isolated are not self-sufficient and will seek to become part of a larger whole. To him, individuals who decided to stay on their own would remain "either a beast or a god." The state was in every sense greater than the individual, and being part of it was a privilege. Humans existed for the glory of the state, not vice versa.

[4강 - Exercise 9]

Compared to other scientists, Nobel laureates are at least twenty-two times more likely to partake as an amateur actor, dancer, magician, or other type of performer. Nationally recognized scientists are much more likely than other scientists to be musicians, sculptors, painters, printmakers, woodworkers, mechanics, poets, or writers, of both fiction and nonfiction. And Nobel laureates are far more likely still. The most successful experts also belong to the wider world. "To him who observes them from afar," said Spanish Nobel laureate Santiago Ramon y Cajal, the father of modern neuroscience, "it appears as though they are scattering and dissipating their energies, while in reality they are channeling and strengthening them." The main conclusion of work that took years of studying scientists and engineers, all of whom were regarded by peers as true technical experts, was that those who did not make a creative contribution to their field lacked aesthetic interests outside their narrow area.

[4강 - Exercise 10]

The experience of conscious decisions preceding events may be an illusion. If I ask you to move your finger whenever you feel like it, you can sit there and then eventually decide to raise your digit. That's what conscious free will feels like. But we know from measuring your brain activity while you're sitting there waiting to decide that the point when you thought you had reached a decision to move your finger actually occurred after your brain had already begun to take action. In other words, the point in time when we think we have made a choice occurs after the event. It's like putting the action cart before the conscious horse. The mental experience of conscious free will may simply justify what our brains have already decided to implement. In describing this, Steven Pinker says, 'The conscious mind - the self or soul - is a spin doctor, not the commander-in-chief.'

[5강 - Exercise 1]

Meaning matching is the process of recognizing elements (referents) in the message and accessing our memory to find the meanings we have memorized for those elements. This is a relatively automatic task. It may require a good deal of effort to learn to recognize symbols in media messages and to memorize their standard meanings, but once learned this process becomes routine. To illustrate, think back to when you first learned to read. You had to learn how to recognize words printed on a page. Then you had to memorize the meaning of each word. The first time you saw the sentence "Dick threw the ball to Jane," it required a good deal of work to divide the sentence into words, to recall the meaning of each word, and to put it all together. With practice, you were able to perform this process more quickly and more easily. Learning to read in elementary school is essentially the process of being able to recognize a longer list of referents and to memorize their denoted meanings.

[5강 - Exercise 2]

The idea of the machinelike brain has inspired and guided neuroscience since it was first proposed in the seventeenth century, replacing more mystical notions about the soul and the body. Scientists, impressed by the discoveries of Galileo, who showed that the planets could be understood as inanimate bodies moved by mechanical forces, came to believe that all nature functioned as a large cosmic clock, subject to the laws of physics. And they began to explain individual living things, including our bodily organs, mechanistically, as though they too were machines. This idea that all nature was like a vast mechanism, and that our organs were machinelike, to replace the two- thousand-year-old Greek idea that viewed all nature as a vast living organism, and our bodily organs as anything but inanimate mechanisms. But the first great accomplishment of this new "mechanistic biology" was a brilliant and original achievement.

[5강 - Exercise 3]

There is little doubt that climate change will make it harder to produce enough food for the world's growing population and will alter the seasonal timing, availability, and quality of water resources. To avoid extending agriculture into already environmentally threatened areas, the current rate of agricultural productivity growth will have to be doubled, according to the World Bank, while minimizing the associated environmental damage. In the extreme event of a 5'C warming, agricultural productivity would be likely to decline throughout the world, particularly in the tropics, even with changes in farming practices. This could mean that more than 3 million additional people could die from malnutrition each year. Even the more likely 2'C warming would produce new weather patterns challenging conventional agricultural practices, and between 100 million and 400 million more people could be at risk of hunger.

[5강 - Exercise 4]

Guilt must be distinguished from shame. The difference lies in how widely the bad feeling is generalized. Guilt focuses narrowly on the action, whereas shame spreads to the whole person. Guilt says, "I did a bad thing." Shame says, "I am a bad person." Research based on that distinction has repeatedly shown that shame is usually destructive, whereas guilt is usually constructive. This may be worth keeping in mind when you deal with your assistants and workers, or your children, or your students (or even your romantic partners). How do you criticize them when they do something wrong? Calling their attention to what they did wrong may seem necessary, but phrasing your criticism in terms of being a bad person (e.g., "you liar") is not nearly as constructive as allowing them to be a person who did a bad thing (e.g., "you shouldn't have lied").

[5강 - Exercise 5]

Success at innovation will have a major impact on the quality of life in the years ahead as will failure. Perhaps a vaccine can be found to prevent cancer. Perhaps an effective means will be found of providing clean, inexhaustible, affordable energy for the entire planet. Perhaps there is a large asteroid hiding somewhere and intent upon destroying the Earth - a catastrophe that, through innovation, can perhaps be prevented. The quality of life in developed countries today heavily depends upon advancements in science and technology - and this is increasingly becoming the case for all the world's nations. But the benefits of scientific advancements often accrue, not simply to the individual investor but to society at large, thus making it essential that the general public support both education and research in science and technology. Only in this manner can our children and grandchildren hope to enjoy a standard of living higher than that of the generations that have preceded them.

[5강 - Exercise 6]

Attempting to quantify human behaviour and reducing this behaviour to a set of statistics is difficult and likely meaningless. Instead, anthropologists rely on qualitative research, which involves long-term observation of, and participation in, the daily lives and activities of the people they are studying. This is known as participant observation, and its value cannot be overstated, even in contemporary research. Living in close proximity to the study group, learning their language, and participating in their daily lives allow anthropologists to develop a much deeper understanding of the range of human behaviour. The adage "See me as I do, not as I say" is remarkably accurate when studying human behaviour. For both anthropologists and the general public, trying to understand other people by listening, observing, and even participating goes a long way toward dispelling some of the stereotypes and intolerance we hold for other ways of living.

[5강 - Exercise 7]

Exclusive technology can be used only by the elites who have access to required resources, and have the aptitude and means to benefit from special training. Agriculture requires warmth, rainfall, and soil, which are not available for people living on high mountains and dry deserts. The invention of writing led to the formation of a class of scribes and elites, who had the necessary time and means to learn writing, and had access to books that were hand copied and kept in libraries away from the general population. This led to a division of the population into the literate lords and priests with knowledge and power, who ruled over the illiterate common people. When a technology is new, it tends to be used only by the elite to increase inequality; as the years go by and the cost keeps falling, it becomes more affordable for everyone and thereby more egalitarian.

[5강 - Exercise 8]

Oftentimes people talk about their "ideal day." Perhaps they like sleeping in, only to be woken up by the calming sounds of the ocean's rising tide. Breakfast mimosas replace brunch, and they lie on the beach with a good book and a year-round tan. This is often defined as your ultimate day. And while it sounds fun in theory, the reality is you will likely not be living your ultimate day every day. It is not practical, and to be honest, it would not be as special if you did it every day. Think of it like buying your dream car vs. renting it for a week. If you buy the dream car, eventually you have to change its oil, replace its tires, be concerned about parking it and getting scratches - your dream becomes tainted with problems. But if you occasionally rent the car, you get all the joys and fun of it without having to worry about the problems. That's what an ultimate day is more like, which is why making an ultimate day your every day is problematic.

[5강 - Exercise 9~10]

Change is a common trait of living things. Each living thing changes as it grows older, but more important forms of change occur from one generation to the next: Children are different from their parents. Nature cannot plan ahead and design a certain kind of change. Instead, nature produces changes that are essentially random. That is, the complicated processes that mix the genes of two parents to produce a unique set of genes in the baby sometimes produce novel outcomes in the form of new traits. However, powerful forces react to these random changes. As a result, some random changes will disappear, whereas others will endure. The process of natural selection decides which traits will disappear and which will continue. For example, imagine that one baby was born with no ears, another with one leg longer than the other, and the third with eyes that could see farther than the average eye. Having no ears or having legs of unequal length would probably be disadvantages, and natural selection would not preserve these traits for future generations. A significant improvement in vision might, however, be selected to remain because the baby who grew up seeing better than other people would be able to find more food and spot danger from a safer distance. The genes for better vision would therefore remain in the gene pool (assuming that this baby would grow up and have babies), and so in future generations more and more people would enjoy this improvement.

[6강 - Exercise 1]

One aspect in which virtual relationships are different from other more tangible forms is that, because the interaction is mediated and abstracted away from the physical person, people may experiment with different aspects of their personas in a manner not easily executed in face-to-face interaction. For example, there are instances of gender inversion, whereby a man may use a female avatar to participate in an online community and vice versa. Also, depending on the application or game, age, weight, skin color, and other phenotypes can be altered so that the player may try out a different look and see how he or she is accepted by the community. Although there is evidence that many people will adapt their virtual selves to look a lot like themselves offline, there is an understanding among those in the virtual community that it is acceptable practice to experiment. Thus, virtual communities provide spaces for some networked individuals to connect, interact, play, and experiment, and for their participants they are a source of meaningful interaction and purposeful relationships.

[6강 - Exercise 2]

Information technology has great potential for influencing markets. It bridges time and distance in a completely new way, and opens markets that were previously unattainable because they were geographically too remote. Until recently, a small town would have no more than three banks competing with each other for the business of the town's residents. Today, we have a situation in which literally thousands of national and international banks compete with each other for customers in that same small town. Financial institutions, such as banks, no longer have to maintain a physical presence to be able to do business. Financial transactions, such as buying and selling shares, are being executed electronically and the customer can monitor the progress of such transactions on his or her personal Internet page. In 2000, more than half of all stock orders placed by individuals in the United States were initiated via the Internet.

[6강 - Exercise 3]

Emotions play a gatekeeper role in cognition. The allocation of attention and working memory does not happen by miracle. We attempt to solve problems that are only emotionally important to us. Think of emotions as a biological thermostat that activates attention, which then activates a rich set of problem solving and response systems. When danger or opportunity arises, information from our senses triggers an emotional reaction that informs the rest of the brain that something requires further attention and maybe even some problem solving. Emotions operate unconsciously constantly evaluating sensory information from our total environment, even while we're asleep or attending to other things. When our emotions enter awareness, we call it a feeling, and then we can begin to consciously deal with the challenge using our reasoning abilities.

[6강 - Exercise 4]

One day I walked out of the washroom to find my wife and children laughing heartily on the couch. My wife had just told our daughters to listen at the door, promising that I would whistle shortly before I departed. Apparently I had. I say apparently, because I certainly wasn't aware of it. Having no recollection of whistling, I concluded that they were just having fun with me. Several days later, lost in deep thought in the washroom, I reached for the toilet paper. I heard myself whistle. Shocked, I started to laugh. What was going on? Upon reflection I determined the origin of such odd behavior. During my toilet-training, my mother would often leave me seated on the toilet while she went about her housework. I was to alert her when I finished. I would signal my readiness with a whistle - a behavior that became unconsciously ingrained.

[6강 - Exercise 5]

The rights to freedom of speech and access to certain information apply as equally to journalists as they do to private citizens. Journalists have always resisted attempts to make them different, partly because if the media were to have special privileges it might also be expected to have special obligations. However, this is not the case throughout the world, and in some European countries journalists have special rights and special rights of access to information unavailable to the general public. In Belgium, for instance, journalists have special travel rights and cut-price telephone calls. In Portugal, journalists have special rights of access to government sources of information and a legal right not to be coerced into acting against their consciences, while in both Portugal and Italy, journalists cannot work for the media without being registered and obtaining a press card. France, Britain, Luxembourg and the Netherlands all have national identity card schemes in cooperation with the police. These are voluntary and you can operate as a journalist without them, but they do make working in dramatic situations such as demonstrations, riots and disasters much easier.

[6강 - Exercise 6]

One of the most important developments in sports journalism in recent years has been the growth of online publishing, or websites on the Internet. Websites have provided thousands of new outlets for sports journalists, created many new jobs and offered new ways of satisfying the growing thirst for sporting information. Because websites are easy to set up and relatively cheap to service and maintain, the growth has been rapid. Almost every sports club and governing body now has its own site, many of them employing professional journalists. The web now supports sites operated by everyone from commercial and public service media organisations, through sporting organisations and individual athletes, to fans. Not surprisingly, the quality of sporting websites is equally variable.

[6강 - Exercise 7]

Until far into the nineteenth century, history was seen as being essentially the result of the actions of kings, statesmen, generals, and other dignitaries. Readers expected the historian to explain the actions of such people; this was the measure of the historian's success. Furthermore, it was generally believed that common sense was all that is needed for the historian to be able to give such a plausible and convincing account of the actions of kings and statesmen. And since common sense is, in Descartes's well-known view, the most justly distributed good, since nobody complains about having too little of it, there was no need for the historian to have any specific abilities as a historian. The only talent that was needed, beyond mere common sense, was the historian's ability to write a sufficiently coherent and convincing narrative. Rhetoric was the discipline that taught the historian how to be such a successful storyteller - hence, history was conceived as a branch of (applied) rhetoric rather than as a discipline in its own right.

[6강 - Exercise 8]

Sometimes we refer to practicing as a process of acquiring experience, implying that we can collect and store our practice experiences. This metaphor is helpful. If we were unable to store memories of past physical activity experiences, each trial would be like our first. We would be in the same situation as people who have lost their short-term memory because of damage to an area of the brain known as the basal ganglia. Because such people can't store information about their previous response in memory, successive repetitions of a skill usually do not bring about learning. They may have played the piano 100 times, but each attempt is an entirely new experience. With a normally functioning brain, however, we can benefit from memories of our experiences and gradually reshape our motor responses in ways that allow us to attain skill goals more accurately and with greater efficiency.

[6강 - Exercise 9~10]

In 1958, a group of social scientists tested different techniques of brainstorming. They posed a thought-provoking question: If humans had an extra thumb on each hand, what benefits and problems would emerge? Then they had two different types of groups brainstorm answers. In one group, the members worked face to face; in the other group, the members each worked independently, then pooled their answers at the end. You might expect the people working face to face to be more productive, but that wasn't the case. The team with independently working members produced almost twice as many ideas. Other studies confirmed these results. Traditional brainstorming simply doesn't work as well as thinking alone, then pooling results. That's because, the scientists found, groups that have direct contact suffer from two problems. The big one is blocking - a great idea pops into your head, but by the time the group calls on you, you've forgotten it. The other is social dampening: outspoken, extroverted members wind up dominating, and their ideas get adopted by others, even if they're not very good ones. Introverted members don't speak up. In contrast, when group members work physically separately from one another - in what researchers call "virtual groups" - it avoids this problem because everyone can generate ideas without being cognitively overshadowed or blocked.

[7강 - Exercise 1]

You'll remember that Odysseus asked his crew to tie him to the mast of his sailing ship to avoid the lure of the Sirens. But if you think about it, he could simply have put beeswax in his ears like he commanded the rest of his crew to do and saved himself a lot of grief. Odysseus wasn't a glutton for punishment. The Sirens could be killed only if whoever heard them could live to tell the story afterward. Odysseus vanquished the Sirens by narrating his near- death voyage after the fact. The slaying was in the telling. The Odysseus myth highlights a key feature of behavior change: Recounting our experiences gives us mastery over them. Whether in the context of psychotherapy, talking to an Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) sponsor, confessing to a priest, confiding in a friend, or writing in a journal, our honest disclosure brings our behavior into relief, allowing us in some cases to see it for the first time. This is especially true for behaviors that involve a level of automaticity outside of conscious awareness.

[7강 - Exercise 2]

If it is important to hold on to a certain self-image, then it also makes sense to burnish it. We do this actively by filtering out negative information. Another option is to simply avoid taking actions that have at least some chance of rebounding badly on us. If I cross the road to avoid passing by a beggar, I won't have to reveal to myself that I lack generosity. A would-be migrant who stays home can always maintain the fiction that he would have succeeded had he gone. It takes an ability to dream, or a substantial dose of overconfidence, to overcome this tendency to persist with the status quo. This is perhaps why migrants, at least those not pushed out by desperation, tend to be not the richest or the most educated, but those who have some special drive, which is why we find so many successful entrepreneurs among them.

[7강 - Exercise 3]

The idea that education should increase intellectual independence is a very narrow view of learning. It ignores the fact that knowledge depends on others. To fix cars, a mechanic needs to know who can provide parts and who can deliver them, how to find out which cars have been recalled, and how to learn about the latest design innovations. Cars these days depend on technology that comes from all around the world, so a decent car mechanic will have access to knowledge distributed throughout the community of knowledge within the automobile industry. Learning, therefore, isn't just about developing new knowledge and skills. It's also about learning to collaborate with others, recognizing what knowledge we have to offer and what gaps we must rely on others to help us fill.

[7강 - Exercise 4]

Euclid, who lived in Alexandria between 350 and 275 B.C., authored The Elements, the most influential geometry book of ancient times. Ptolemy, the king of Egypt at that time, asked for his advice on an easy way to read the book. "There is no royal road to mathematics," replied Euclid. The same is true of elementary mathematics. However, since it deals with the bottom of the tower, the number of layers it establishes is smaller. There are no long chains of arguments as in higher mathematics. This is one of the reasons it is appropriate for children. In another sense, though, it is harder. Some of its layers are hidden and difficult to discern, as if they were built underwater and thus difficult to view. Noticing them requires perceptive observation. They are easy to miss and skip. Elementary school mathematics is not sophisticated, but it contains wisdom. It is not complex, but it is profound.

[7강 - Exercise 5]

Fungi make up one of life's kingdoms - as broad and busy a category as "animals" or "plants." Microscopic yeasts are fungi, as are the sprawling networks of honey fungi, or Armillaria, which are among the largest organisms in the world. The current record holder, in Oregon, weighs hundreds of tons, spills across ten square kilometers, and is somewhere between two thousand and eight thousand years old. There are probably many larger, older specimens that remain undiscovered. Many of the most dramatic events on Earth have been - and continue to be - a result of fungal activity. Plants only made it out of the water around five hundred million years ago because of their collaboration with fungi, which served as their root systems for tens of million years until plants could evolve their own. Today, more than ninety percent of plants depend on mycorrhizal fungi which can link trees in shared networks sometimes referred to as the "wood wide web." This ancient association gave rise to all recognizable life on land, the future of which depends on the continued ability of plants and fungi to form healthy relationships.

[7강 - Exercise 6]

Telling ourselves everything other people could possibly use against us doesn't numb us to it. It only makes us believe we are worth those words and that those accusations would be valid. Besides, there are so many variables to whether or not someone will grace you with their approval and praise that it's nearly impossible to blanket over everyone and everything completely and universally. And that's what's required if validation is to be sought: certainty, the kind we can't find in ourselves. But people's opinions, especially negative ones, largely stem from what they know they don't have and can't do. You eventually have to stop basing your self-worth on the insecurities of others and start basing it on your own genuine convictions, no matter how long it takes for you to find them. I always knew that my belief that I wasn't worth it wasn't the reason I played my own antagonist. My fear of being hurt by other people was.

[7강 - Exercise 7]

When we behave toward others with care and concern, sensitivity and tact, honesty and integrity, generosity and grace, forbearance and forgiveness, we start to become a different person. And such is the nature of reciprocity - itself one of the deeply engraved instincts that is the basis of morality - that we begin to change the way others relate to us; not always, to be sure, but often. Slowly but surely, a new atmosphere begins to be felt, at least in the more intimate environments in which we function. Bad behavior can easily become contagious, but so can good behavior, and it usually wins out in the long run. We feel uplifted by people who care about other people.

[7강 - Exercise 8]

When you are learning from experience and moving boldly outside your comfort zone, emotions are likely to be the biggest derailer of your personal learning. There will be times when your body tenses, your head pounds, your mouth goes dry, your hands sweat, your breathing accelerates, and you feel flushed with adrenaline - all signs that a disruptive emotion is at work. Other times you may feel "down," "blah," disconnected, despondent, or "just not into it" as you drag yourself through the day. Though less dramatic, these reactions can also be signs of a disruptive emotion as well. When this happens, it can be very hard to stay focused on learning from your experiments. However, these kinds of emotions are also informative and worth investigating. Emotions aren't just "problems" to be dealt with or suppressed. They also signal that "there is something to be learned here." Understanding why you are feeling the way you are feeling can be an important stimulus for making change if you can prepare yourself to read the signs.

[7강 - Exercise 9~10]

A friend of mine, David, used to be the house magician at a restaurant in Massachusetts. Every night he passed around the tables; coins walked through his fingers, reappeared exactly where they shouldn't, disappeared again, divided in two, vanished into nothing. One evening, two customers returned to the restaurant shortly after leaving and pulled David aside, looking troubled. When they left the restaurant, they said, the sky had appeared shockingly blue and the clouds large and vivid. Had he put something in their drinks? As the weeks went by, it continued to happen - customers returned to say the traffic had seemed louder than it was before, the streetlights brighter, the patterns on the sidewalk more fascinating, the rain more refreshing. The magic tricks were changing the way people experienced the world. David explained to me why he thought this happened. Our perceptions work in large part by expectation. It takes less cognitive effort to make sense of the world using preconceived images updated with a small amount of new sensory information than to constantly form entirely new perceptions from scratch. It is our preconceptions that create the blind spots in which magicians do their work. By attrition, coin tricks loosen the grip of our expectations about the way hands and coins work. Eventually, they loosen the grip of our expectations on our perceptions more generally. On leaving the restaurant, the sky looked different because the diners saw the sky as it was there and then, rather than as they expected it to be. Tricked out of our expectations, we fall back on our senses. What's astonishing is the difference between what we expect to find and what we find when we actually look.

[8강 - Exercise 1]

The body of modern humans has adaptations that allow us to be more mobile than other large animals. Even though we aren't fast runners compared to horses, lions, and chimpanzees, we can walk for miles without tiring, and we can, with training, become better at running long distances than any other mammal. Some of our muscle fibers are actually built differently than those of the animals we are most closely related to; our muscles are built for efficiency and endurance rather than speed and strength. We can run marathons in the blazing heat, as long as we keep drinking water. The skeleton found at Lake Turkana suggests that our ancestors that lived 1.5 million years ago already had uniquely human adaptations for endurance. Their longer legs would have allowed them to stride along faster at a walk than australopithecines, and the dimensions of the muscles and tendons attached to the leg bones would have given their legs the same spring and strength that makes modern humans such efficient runners.

[8강 - Exercise 2]

While we, like our ancestors, do battle in and with the dark hours, we also calculate and recalculate their value, often cutting sleep time in favour of other obligations. And we tend to be surprised when sleep researchers reveal the variety and extent of the lives we are unknowingly living while we sleep. Our ancestors would not have been surprised by this. To them, sleep was an active part of life whose only distinction from waking activity was that it usually took place in darkness. The gods might visit a sleeper with prophetic dreams, or an enemy might take advantage of a hasty slumber, but for early humans the rewards of oblivion were in active relation to everything else worth living for. We are far more likely to see sleep as the necessary evil required for a productive and happy life.

[8강 - Exercise 3]

Today's healthcare settings could not operate without computers and computerized equipment. Computers are used for business operations, medical records, and collection of clinical data. Computers may be voice activated for charting at the bedside, for use with nursing care plans, for communication from the physicians' office to nursing stations, for regulating the administration of medications, and for many other facets of operation and patient care. Most of the equipment used in today's modern hospital is computerized. New graduates move into a highly technical world when they seek their first nursing positions. The education they receive to prepare them for these positions also must include the skills necessary to work in this highly computerized environment.

[8강 - Exercise 4]

People tend to wear the mask that shows them off in the best possible light - humble, confident, diligent. They say the right things, smile, and seem interested in our ideas. They learn to conceal their insecurities and envy. If we take this appearance for reality, we never really know their true feelings, and on occasion we are blindsided by their sudden resistance, hostility, and manipulative actions. Fortunately, the mask has cracks in it. People continually leak out their true feelings and unconscious desires in the nonverbal cues they cannot completely control - facial expressions, vocal inflections, tension in the body, and nervous gestures. You must master this language by transforming yourself into a superior reader of men and women. Armed with this knowledge, you can take the proper defensive measures. On the other hand, since appearances are what people judge you by, you must learn how to present the best front and play your role to maximum effect.

[8강 - Exercise 5]

Absolute poverty (being below a certain threshold of basic needs) has received most attention in the context of developing countries. Absolute poverty is commonly understood to be morally unacceptable and unjust in that it reflects a situation where severe deprivation perseveres in a world otherwise characterized by abundance. It is also possible to demonstrate that absolute poverty is economically inefficient and costly. People who are poor may have economically viable projects and be highly rational decision-makers. However, if the resources they command are insufficient to translate these projects into sustainable activities, economic opportunities can be wasted and their resources degraded. An asset-based poverty line is thus conceivable, and attempts to estimate this suggest that such a line is also above most of the international poverty lines.

[8강 - Exercise 6]

Global health is a social concept about which there is a great deal of misunderstanding, even among those who are part of it. Global health work, like other productive activities (for example the state, the family, sport), is a social institution completely integrated into and influenced by the structure of all our other social institutions. Those who work on global health view the topic through a lens that has been moulded by their social experience. Global health work is a human productive activity that takes time and money, and so is guided by and directed by those forces that have control over money and time. People earn their living by "doing global health" and as a consequence the dominant social and economic forces in society determine to a large extent what global health is about and how it is pursued.

[8강 - Exercise 7]

Job insecurity is obviously felt in France by workers with fixed-term contracts, whose jobs are by definition precarious. More surprisingly, workers with permanent contracts also feel insecure, even though they benefit from what are in practice the world's most protective labor laws. This observation is not as paradoxical as it seems, insofar as a worker with a "permanent" contract knows that if he is fired or his firm goes bankrupt and he becomes unemployed, his chances of finding an equivalent job are limited. This leads to a feeling of pessimism that pervades the whole of French society and paralyzes it, handicapping its ability to adapt and innovate. While the French example is extreme, it illustrates the degree to which employment laws may have unintended consequences.

[8강 - Exercise 8]

In nature as a whole, orders of growth and decay are inseparably interwoven, as two sides of one overall generative process. For example, with plants such growth and decay give rise to the ground out of which other plants can grow. Indeed, without the death of the individual organism, life would not go on. It is also a rather common feeling that perhaps it is natural for societies to take part in this cycle, so that the ultimate decay of each society is therefore inevitable. In early times, such as the Stone Age, this cycle was, in a certain sense, a viable possibility for humanity as a whole. Decay could take place in some part of the world, while growth and flowering occurred in other parts. Furthermore the decay of one society could provide a kind of fertile ground for the growth of a new one. Thus it can be plausibly argued that this whole cycle is in some sense conducive to creativity.

[8강 - Exercise 9~10]

Humans are natural people watchers, and most of the time we look at faces and eyes. The focus of another person's gaze is a very powerful signal for us to look in the same direction. Magic Johnson was a great basketball player because he used the "no look" pass: he could pass the ball to a teammate without taking his eye off his opponent. He could control his gaze to hold the other player's attention and not betray with his eyes where he was about to pass. More impressive was his ability to look toward one teammate and then pass to a completely different person. Our difficulty in ignoring the gaze of another person shows what an important component of human social interaction it is. They say that the eyes are a window to the soul. I don't know about souls, but eyes are a pretty good indicator of what someone may be thinking. You can observe this yourself the next time you are standing in line at the supermarket checkout. Just watch the rich exchange of glances between people. It's remarkable that we are often so unaware of how important the language of the eyes is. This is one reason why it is so uncomfortable to have a conversation with someone who is wearing sunglasses. We cannot monitor where they are looking. Police officers wear mirrored sunglasses to intimidate suspects for this very reason.

[9강 - Exercise 1]

It's very helpful to teach the concept that if something can't be changed presently, there's not much point getting upset about it. Most children learn this concept most easily with animals. Start with really obvious things, such as pointing out that a rabbit, for example, cannot open the door to its cage and come over to eat the carrot you are holding, no matter how much you might want it to. The rabbit is simply incapable of opening the lock on the cage door. Ever. So there is no point thinking it is a stupid rabbit if you are sitting across the room with a carrot in your hand. It isn't being stupid. It's doing the best it can, and we need to accept it for where it is at in its reasoning abilities. Most children can see this easily. Move on to more complex areas, such as how the rabbit scratches and struggles to get away when someone picks it up and holds it incorrectly. It doesn't know our thoughts and isn't able to think like a human, so it can't understand why it is being held that way and becomes frightened.

[9강 - Exercise 2]

Adapting our skills for success in a less-than-perfect world means not only managing the gray, subjective areas around and within us, but it also means doing the very best we can with what we have. In situations with shocking shortfalls - in information, time, materials, manpower, money - leaders cannot shut down or walk away. In a crisis we don't get to fill out an acquisition report or complain to our boss. We throw someone over our shoulder and do what needs to be done without the luxury of all of the information, and in a stressful time crunch. Nobody has enough money. No one has enough time or manpower. But that doesn't have to be a bad thing. As necessity is the mother of invention, so can constraints bring out the best in us. Tightened circumstances force us to rethink, reframe, and do things differently, instead of conducting business as usual.

[9강 - Exercise 3]

Some have argued that people have an innate "body wisdom" that guides them to select healthful foods naturally, thus implying that nutrition education is not needed. Much of this line of thought grew out of the work of Clara Davis, who studied the spontaneous food choices of infants. The infants, ages 6 to 11 months, were weaned by allowing them to self-select their entire diets from a total of 34 foods, without added salt or sugar, which were rotated - a few at a time - at each meal. Davis reported that after several months of such "spontaneous" food selection, the children's nutritional status and health were excellent. However, one should note that the 34 foods were all simply prepared, minimally processed, and nutritious whole foods, such as steamed vegetables, fruit juice, milk, meat, and oatmeal. There were no poisons, and nothing was allowed to influence the children's food choices except their own appetites. In other words, the food items were offered by caretakers who were trained to provide no encouragements or discouragements while the children ate. It comes as no surprise that the infants' health was superb.

[9강 - Exercise 4]

Sports teams are often cohesive groups, not simply because they wear uniforms of the same color, but because they frequently have to work together for the common good against a common opponent. A team that merely practiced, without ever playing against an opponent, would probably not feel so unified. It is quite possible that the deeply rooted human impulse to form social groups was partly stimulated by competition among groups. If a lone person wanted something - the fruit on a particular tree, for example - and a group also wanted it, the group would almost always win. Over evolutionary history, loners would therefore be losers, whereas the people who passed on their genes toward future generations would be the ones who formed groups. Groups promote safety, they find and share food, and they can do tasks that no one individual can do alone.

[9강 - Exercise 5]

One way to ensure that our observations remain objective is to quantify them by counting, estimating, or using measuring tools. "Small" might mean different things to different people: a ladybug is small compared with a dog, but a dog is small compared with an elephant. Adding numbers will help remove interpretation and doubt. "Small" is subjective; "one inch across" is not. Measure whenever you can, estimate when you can't, but always use numerical values. Instead of saying there are "many" lights on the ceiling above the woman in Edward Hopper's Automat, note that there are "two rows of seven lights." Rather than stating that "there are a few chairs" in the scene, be specific: "there are three dark, wooden, armless chairs visible." Even phenomena that can't be counted or measured can be quantified. Instead of saying that the dog is "smelly," quantify it: "On a scale of one to five, five being the worst, the smell emanating from the dog was a four."

[9강 - Exercise 6]

Each animal in nature is usually best adapted to one habitat or biome, where their bodies have the nature-provided tools to obtain resources and to avoid hazards. A Bengal tiger would not trade places with a Gobi camel, as neither one has the tools to cope with the swapped habitats. When the season changes, some animals migrate a great distance each year to favored habitats, such as the annual arctic tern flight from the Arctic to the Antarctic and back. The fable of the Hedgehog and the Fox describes two animals with different strategies. The single-minded hedgehog has one big idea to cope with any problem, by rolling up into a ball, but the versatile fox has many small ideas, by studying each situation and arriving at a tailored solution. Humans are the most versatile in adaptations, as the clever fox that can live anywhere.

[9강 - Exercise 7]

A refrigerator lowers its internal temperature using the same physics you rely on to cool off a hot cup of coffee by blowing on it - evaporation cooling. Say your morning cup of coffee is too hot to drink. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the coffee. That is, some molecules will have a kinetic energy below the average, and some will be much more energetic. Those more energetic, eager-beaver molecules form the cloud of steam over your coffee cup and have enough kinetic energy to initiate a phase transition, moving from the liquid state into the vapor phase. When you blow on your coffee, you are pushing these high-kinetic-energy molecules away from the cup, preventing them from returning to the liquid and redepositing their energy into the liquid. With those high-energy molecules no longer part of the coffee liquid- vapor system, the new average kinetic energy of all the molecules is lower than it was before, reflected in a lower temperature for your coffee.

[9강 - Exercise 8]

We read an article in the newspaper about a famine that is starving three million children in sub-Saharan Africa. We shake our heads and turn the page. Then we see a TV documentary that explores the life of one such child and his family. Our check is in the mail. Why is it that a matter-of-fact account of the suffering of many stimulates little while a vivid account of the suffering of one immediately gets us to do something? Psychologist Paul Slovic suggests that we are driven in situations like this by our emotional reactions to suffering. An explicitly identified single individual, with a face, a name, and a life story, elicits far more empathy and compassion than a number, no matter how big the number. And it is our empathy and compassion - our emotions - that compel us to act. In many studies, Slovic and his collaborators have shown that people are more willing to volunteer time, or contribute money, when they read, for example, a detailed account of a single flood victim than when they read a less vivid account of hundreds or thousands who have lost their homes.

[9강 - Exercise 9~11]

"Hey, wanna join me on a radio show after lunch?" Alyssa froze, her eyes growing round as she stared at Molly. Molly is extravagantly generous and completely random like that. She is the executive director of a small nonprofit in town and had been given the opportunity to share on the local talk-radio station about how assistive technology could keep senior citizens in their homes longer. Molly's invitation was sincere, and later that day Alyssa found herself being introduced to the radio host and settling herself into a corner of the on-air studio, assuming that her role would be small and that of a supporting character in the interview. As it turned out, the host introduced Alyssa and her law firm each time they broke for sponsors and again as they returned to the air - which was easily hundreds of dollars in free radio advertising. Though Alyssa was initially hesitant because she'd had no time to prepare and she felt nervous about being on live radio, it all went fine, and she and Molly shared one last chuckle in the parking lot afterward before they slipped into their cars and went back to their respective offices. As Alyssa recounted the unexpected adventure to her husband that evening, her thoughts turned again to Molly and the value of the radio time she suggested. While they don't often have the chance to work together, Molly is a consistent cheerleader in Alyssa's life. She is a strong leader, and she is always looking for ways that everyone can win. There is no competition with this friend; she is wholeheartedly collaborative in everything she does. Molly is a beautiful example of a woman who embodies the giving spirit. Her generosity with her time, her talents, and her resources has impacted thousands of lives, and Alyssa strives to be more like her.

[10강 - Exercise 1]

Discussions of corporate governance still pay much attention to the structure, role, and responsibilities of the board of directors. Most boards contain a mixture of insiders and outsiders. Insiders are people who are employed or have been employed by the corporation or its subsidiaries. The CEO of a corporation, for example, is often a member of its board of directors. Outsiders are more independent of the corporation. The insiders provide specific insight into the relevant corporation. They have specialized information and experience of the corporation precisely because of their close links to it. The outsiders provide a more objective perspective and a more neutral oversight. They can prevent group-think and collusion among the insiders, thereby protecting the interests of the shareholders. Indeed, most accounts of corporate governance emphasize the importance of the board having a majority of outsiders. Studies suggest that having a majority of outsiders on the board generally improves the performance of a corporation.

[10강 - Exercise 2]

Although all human populations represent a single evolutionary lineage, there are some genetic differences between human populations. These differences are minor compared to the interpopulation differences observed in most other species. We are not subdivided into discrete groups and clusters, as most of our diversity displays gradual changes, including such traditional "racial" traits such as skin color. The few genetic changes that show a more discrete distribution have distributions that reflect local selective agents and not races. For example, sickle cell is found in high frequency in malarial regions and is not a disease of "blacks," as it is in high frequency in many non-African populations that live in malarial regions. The vast majority of genetic diversity in humans exists between us as individuals, not members of a population, making each of us genetically unique.

[10강 - Exercise 3]

Very huge expansions in irrigated cropland were achieved in parts of Central Asia during the 20th century during the period of the Soviet Union. The Karakum Canal, which diverts water from the Amudarya westwards across southern Turkmenistan, was completed in 1986 after more than 30 years in construction. The canal is no less than 1,400 kilometres long and the water it delivers has enabled crops to be grown on more than 7,000 square kilometres of land that would otherwise be too dry for cultivation. Sadly, however, Turkmenistan's irrigation systems are poorly designed and inefficient, resulting in large tracts of cropland facing problems of salinization and/or waterlogging. The loss of water from irrigation canals is also considerable. Most are not lined, so water seeps away, and evaporation rates in the arid climate are high. Consequently, more than one-third of the water diverted from the Amudarya never reaches the fields.

[10강 - Exercise 4]

No one likes the feeling that other people are waiting - impatiently - for a response. At the beginning of the day, faced with an overflowing inbox, an array of voice mail messages, and the list of next steps from your last meeting, it's tempting to "clear the decks" before starting your own work. When you're up-to-date, you tell yourself, it will be easier to focus. The trouble with this approach is it means spending the best part of the day on other people's priorities. By the time you settle down to your own work, it could be mid-afternoon, when your energy dips and your brain slows. "Oh well, maybe tomorrow will be better," you tell yourself. But tomorrow brings another pile of e-mails, phone messages, and to-do list items. If you carry on like this, you will spend most of your time responding to incoming demands and answering questions framed by other people. And you will never create anything truly worthwhile.

[10강 - Exercise 5]

Every comic moment is traumatic. The enjoyment that comedy offers is inseparable from the trauma associated with making conscious an unconscious connection. Comedy forces us to confront, for instance, the failings of those whom we suppose to embody flawless authority. This authority secures the ground of our existence. Though we can laugh at this ground trembling, it nonetheless also delivers a traumatic shock. Or comedy makes explicit the connection between the act of eating and the act of defecating, a connection that might make it harder to enjoy a hamburger. Those who hate all forms of comedy and retreat from every joker they see coming are in some sense right. They recognize the inseparability of the enjoyment that comedy provides from its traumatic impact. There is no comedy without a jolt that potentially shatters the ground of our everyday lives.

[10강 - Exercise 6]

The response you make to someone's message does not have to be immediate. You can respond minutes, days, or even years later. For example, your second-grade teacher may have asked you to stop throwing rocks at a group of birds that were on the playground. Perhaps the teacher added that the birds were part of a family and were gathering food for their babies. She might also have indicated that birds feel pain just like people. Perhaps twenty years later, as you think about eating an animal, you remember those words from your teacher and decide to become a vegetarian. It is important to remember the power of your messages and to consider the ethical consequences of your communication actions, for, whether or not you want to grant those consequences, you are changing people each time you exchange messages with them.

[10강 - Exercise 7]

Hierarchy is probably the most common form of organizing the workplace. There aren't a lot of good alternatives to it, and companies need some say in managing workers, particularly as they scale. However, there are also a lot of downsides to hierarchy, and over the last decade my collaborators and I have documented the many ways in which it can go wrong. Team members squabble over resources, engage in power struggles, and battle over rank. All of this harms performance. One of the burning questions in management research right now is, what are the best alternatives to hierarchy? But it's a complex picture - hierarchy isn't always bad or harmful, and its effectiveness may depend on where and how it's implemented, and how the person at the top manages the hierarchy. For example, there is growing interest in remote work and virtual teams, and in that context, hierarchy works quite well.

[10강 - Exercise 8]

When we look around at our dwellings at the end of our lives and survey all the commodities that we have accumulated, we often come to the insight that they amount to nothing but a heap of worthless junk. Like most insights that come as one approaches the end, this one is entirely misleading. The fact that the commodities were worthless junk from the beginning is what gave them their sublimity and what gave us enjoyment in accumulating them. No one values accumulating useful things. The collector, who is a derivation of the capitalist bent on total accumulation, always collects items with no use value - old stamps, empty beer cans, baseball trading cards, and so on. One doesn't collect useful items because there is no enjoyment attached to their accumulation. Though capitalism preaches self-interest, the enjoyment that it offers - the enjoyment of the sublime commodity - is an enjoyment that depends on the absence of self-interest.

[10강 - Exercise 9~11]

Gifts build fans and result in people sharing on social media and in person to their friends. A gift is often so unexpected that people can't help but feel compelled to talk about it. When Paul needed to go from his hotel at Sydney Olympic Park to the international airport for a flight to Los Angeles, he asked a hotel staffer to call a cab. About halfway through the forty-five-minute ride to the airport, Paul's driver turned to him and handed him a pen with the words "HI CHARLIE" (in all capital letters) and his telephone number on it. Paul smiled and said "Hi, Charlie!" At first, Paul thought he didn't really need a pen, and was about to give it back. And then he started to think about that gift. The hotel called Charlie's cab over the other cabs in the area, so he was doing something right to get that work. But with ride-sharing companies, the traditional cab business was getting squeezed. How could an independent cab driver compete? The pen was an interesting way to stand out and be remembered. And then Charlie gave Paul another unexpected gift. When they were about a mile from the airport, Charlie did something Paul has never experienced before in hundreds of cab rides in cities all over the world. He turned the meter off at exactly one hundred dollars. Paul and Charlie didn't set that as a fixed price, and Paul was willing to pay the full fare. He just turned off the meter! At the end of the ride, Paul tried to give Charlie a tip, but he refused. Paul had such a great experience and shared it on his blog. Five months later Paul was in Sydney again. This time, he didn't ask the hotel to call him a cab. And he didn't use a ride-sharing company. This time when he was ready to go to the airport, he knew what to do. And when he got into his cab for the second time, he greeted his driver with "Hi, Charlie!" Just as the free pen had prompted Paul to do.

[11강 - Exercise 1]

The problem is not that using social media directly makes us unhappy. Indeed, as the positive studies found, certain social media activities, when isolated in an experiment, modestly boost well-being. The key issue is that using social media tends to take people away from the real-world socializing that's massively more valuable. As the negative studies imply, the more you use social media, the less time you tend to devote to offline interaction, and therefore the worse this value deficit becomes - leaving the heaviest social media users much more likely to be lonely and miserable. The small boosts you receive from posting on a friend's wall or liking their latest Instagram photo can't come close to compensating for the large loss experienced by no longer spending real-world time with that same friend. As Shakya summarizes: "Where we want to be cautious ... is when the sound of a voice or a cup of coffee with a friend is replaced with 'likes' on a post."

[11강 - Exercise 2]

It turns out that we tend to have more doubt about the truth of the facts described by speakers with a foreign accent compared to native speakers. For example, if we are asked to judge whether we believe the content is real in the phrase Ants do not sleep, we believe it to be more true when someone with a native accent says it rather than someone with a foreign accent. In addition, it seems that when we interact with a person who has a foreign accent, we tend to process language somewhat differently than with native people. In some ways, and maybe due to certain problems with understanding, we pay less attention to the details of speech and look more at the communicative intent. It's a bit like we do not care what the person says, but what they really mean. And that is why our memory of the exact words that people use in a conversation is much more accurate when people speak with a native accent. So when you speak in a foreign language, don't expect people to remember exactly what you said or the details of your message.

[11강 - Exercise 3]

Driven by enlightenment ideals, exploration gradually evolved from the wholesale plunder of foreign lands in search of gold to more virtuous scientific purposes. Instead of conquerors, explorers were now botanists, physicists, astronomers, and anthropologists. It was no longer enough to merely find the world - exploration now meant truly discovering it. Curiosity had always been an exploratory motive, but an international competition for prestige based on scientific discovery was something new. Even the ships were intended to reflect the new ideals under which they sailed, with names such as Discovery, Resolution, Endeavour, Adventure, Geographie, Naturaliste, and Astrolabe. Some ventures, such as the French 1735 mission to Ecuador to measure the shape of Earth, were virtually devoid of nonscientific purpose. Nevertheless, even purely scientific voyages were intended to enhance the image of the sponsoring nation in an eighteenth-and-nineteenth-century equivalent of the Cold War space race. In this exploratory contest, a new figure emerged: the scientist-hero, conquering ignorance on behalf of the nation.

[11강 - Exercise 4]

John Barth discusses an Egyptian papyrus complaining that all the stories have been told and that therefore nothing remains for the contemporary writer but to retell them. That papyrus describing the postmodern condition is forty-five hundred years old. This is not a terrible thing, though. Writers notice all the time that their characters resemble somebody - Persephone, Pip, Long John Silver, La Belle Dame sans Merci - and they go with it. What happens, if the writer is good, is usually not that the work seems derivative or trivial but just the opposite: the work actually acquires depth and resonance from the echoes and chimes it sets up with prior texts, weight from the accumulated use of certain basic patterns and tendencies. Moreover, works are actually more comforting because we recognize elements in them from our prior reading. I suspect that a wholly original work, one that owed nothing to previous writing, would so lack familiarity as to be quite discouraging to readers.

[11강 - Exercise 5]

In the period after the Second World War, fat and oil were in short supply, so people collected beechnuts in the woods. These are rare enough most years even without human intervention, and the animals urgently need these calorie bombs for the winter. But during the war, the rural population were ruthless in their desperation. Unwilling to wait for the beechnuts to fall from the trees by themselves, they went around the forest bashing the trunks with mallets. The serious damage to the trees was seen as a necessary consequence. Gathering firewood, especially brushwood which isn't useful for much else, was also common until after the war and caused widespread harm to the forest. Twigs are mostly made up of bark, which means they are particularly nutritious for their size. Deprived of this groundcover of twigs, the forest was starved, leaving nothing for the smallest woodland inhabitants to eat.

[11강 - Exercise 6]

All animals have coping mechanisms, including insects. Contrary to popular opinion, a harsh winter has little effect on their population size. Otherwise, most insect species would have long since become extinct. A particularly cold winter is therefore no guarantee that there will be fewer mosquitoes, ticks, or other pests in spring. What is much harder for animals to bear is the cold, wet weather. At temperatures slightly above freezing, rain or mist causes the body temperature to fall quickly. Even for us humans - who can easily wrap up with extra layers of clothing - damp and cold together make for the worst combination. Water conducts heat better than dry air, so the body cools faster. For animals, this means that they consume more energy to maintain the required minimum temperature. And if their fat reserves are depleted too early, before the end of the winter - they're done for.

[11강 - Exercise 7]

Examples can be useful, but only to illustrate what you are saying, never to prove it. They should be well chosen for the purpose of making a general statement of your point more intelligible. Many persons have difficulty in dealing with generalizations, especially when these are stated at a high level of abstraction. A concrete example offered to illustrate something stated abstractly helps them to understand what is being said. If you don't understand what others are saying, it is not only proper but also prudent for you to ask them to give you an example of the point. If they cannot do this to your satisfaction, it may be fair to suspect that they themselves do not fully understand what they are trying to say. Examples should be treated like assumptions. Just as assumptions should be allowed to exert whatever force they have only with everyone's explicit acknowledgment and consent, so examples should stand only if everyone sees their relevance and is aware that they are being used to illustrate a point, not to prove it.

[11강 - Exercise 8]

Living below a noisy neighbor can be trying, but what generally is the cause of the noise? Most of the irritating noise is described as "thuds" or "thumps" and, perhaps surprisingly, is not due to something like high heels clicking on the floor. Rather it is due to low-frequency noise generated by someone walking across the floor. The repeated footfalls cause the floor to oscillate like a drumhead, typically at a frequency between 15 and 35 hertz, which is at the low-frequency end of the audible range for most people. Such noise can be heard, and even felt, by the downstairs neighbor. The high-frequency sound of heels clicking on a floor might be heard, but far more energy is transferred to the drum-like, low-frequency floor oscillations. Installing a carpet might actually worsen the situation because, with its softer surface, the footfalls can then transfer even more energy into the floor oscillations.

[11강 - Exercise 9~11]

We lived in farmland and my dad ran a sawmill. My dad got his leg cut off in a farming accident just before I was born. At that time, artificial legs were made out of paper with varnish; they were put around a mold, and there were cables in the ankles that connected the leg to the foot. He was learning to walk again about the same time I was learning to walk. So I grew up with my dad's artificial leg, and things would happen. One time we were delivering mining materials, and there was a timber checker that had to look at every support beam that we were unloading. And these headers weighed anywhere between 200 and 240 pounds apiece. My dad had to pick every one of those up on the truck and turn it over so the man could see all four edges of it. My dad pulled one of the headers out and got his artificial leg caught, and as he turned, he snapped one of the cables. It let out a pretty loud pop, and he said, "Oh, darn, I think I broke my foot!" My dad came walking across the truck, and the foot was turned at right angles to what it should be. And he caught that foot in his two hands, and he straightened it up. It cracked and popped something awful. And that timber checker turned white as cotton. We didn't think anything about it. Several years later, Uncle Lon, my dad's brother, had run into the guy. He asked Uncle Lon, "Lon, are you any kin to Tom Granger that used to deliver mining materials?" Uncle Lon said, "Sure, that's my little brother." The timber checker said, "I'll tell you one thing. That's the toughest man I've ever seen. When he broke his foot, he just set that thing and finished unloading that truck." Well, Uncle Lon was laughing so hard, he said tears were rolling down his cheeks. He never told the guy that it was an artificial leg that my dad was working with.

[12강 - Exercise 1]

Some of animal communication techniques are instinctive and require no learning. The honeybee, for example, needs no lessons to execute or understand its dance. This particular language is obviously carried from one generation of bees to another in the genes. In other cases, animal language seems to arise from both genetically transmitted information and environmental learning. One way to test this statement with songbirds is to raise the birds in an environment in which they do not hear the songs characteristic of their species. Some species, such as flycatchers, can produce their songs even when raised in acoustic isolation. Others, such as wrens, must have a model from which to learn. In an experiment with cowbirds, for example, chicks from North Carolina were raised around Texas adults. The result: The chicks grew up singing with a strong Texas accent!

[12강 - Exercise 2]

To the extent that the units in a social system are not all identical in their behavior, structure exists within the system. We define structure as the patterned arrangements of the units in a system. This structure gives regularity and stability to human behavior in a social system; it allows one to predict behavior with some degree of accuracy. Thus, structure represents one type of information in that it decreases uncertainty. Perhaps we see an illustration of this predictability that is provided by structure in a bureaucratic organization like a government agency. The well-developed social structure in such a system consists of hierarchical positions, giving individuals in higher-ranked positions the right to issue orders to individuals of lower rank. Their orders are expected to be carried out.

[12강 - Exercise 3]

While economic theory is not the driving force behind hyperconsumerism, it has certainly provided a convenient rationalization. Hyperconsumerism is the result of a combination of factors, psychological and sociological, as well as economic. Purchasing a new thing is a simpler, more easily controllable source of pleasure than building a new connection with another human being. To the extent that material possessions are a source of status in any particular society, it can also be an easier, more manageable source of social standing and self-esteem. And there can be a kind of mild narcotic rush, a fleeting sense of relief from the blues, connected to acquiring a new thing. Many of us have experienced that feeling on occasion; and some of us become addicted to it as means of "self-medication." They seem to live by the slogan, "When the going gets tough, the tough go shopping."

[12강 - Exercise 4]

In 1985 the typical American reported having three people he could confide in about important matters. By 2004 his network had shrunk to two, and it hasn't bounced back since. Almost half the population say they have no one, or just one person, in whom they can confide. Considering that this included close family members, it reflects a stunning decline in social connection. Other surveys show that people are losing ties with their neighborhoods and their communities. They are less likely to say they trust other people and institutions. They don't invite friends over for dinner or participate in social or volunteer groups as they did decades ago. Most Americans simply don't know their neighbors anymore. Even family bonds are being strained. By 2004 less than 30 percent of American families ate together every night.

[12강 - Exercise 5]

Provenance in collecting is the proof of originality. Collectors seek authentic originals with provenance because they are more valuable. But why are originals more valuable than an identical copy? One could argue that forgeries or identical copies reduce the value of originals because they compromise the market forces of supply and demand. In the same way that a prolific artist who floods the market with work undermines the value attributed to each piece, rarity means limited supply. For many collectors, however, possessing an original object fulfills a deeper need to connect with the previous owner or the person who made the item. I think that an art forgery is unacceptable because it does not generate the psychological essentialist view that something of the artist is literally in the work.

[12강 - Exercise 6]

The need to belong is so innately human that no one can deny its importance. On some level we all want to be accepted by others - so much so that social exclusion causes the same areas of your brain to light up that physical pain does. Think of a time when you felt that you did not belong - when you were unwelcomed, unloved, treated with suspicion, or even ignored. How did it feel? If not painful, it was most likely not a situation you would want to find yourself in again. This is part of the reason we try to hire people who are "culture fits" with our organizations. We want to avoid having people who are unhappy or quit because they don't fit in. But only hiring people who fit in limits the diversity of perspective needed to drive innovation. The alternative is to create an inclusive space where people - all of whom are different from one another - can fit together.

[12강 - Exercise 7]

Before the creation of standardized time, regions of the United States were isolated pockets each with its own time zone. Many cities had their own local time based on the position of the sun at high noon. A traveler would find that Michigan had twenty-seven time zones; Indiana, twenty-three; Wisconsin, thirty-nine; and Illinois, twenty-seven. Some train stations had multiple clocks hung on their walls. In a desire for more uniformity and to reduce confusion, the railroads adopted a standardized time based on Greenwich Mean Time from England. The eight thousand rail stations associated with nearly six hundred independent railroad lines and their fifty-three time schemes were arranged into one system of four time zones. But the train systems, like those in Bern, Switzerland, had the new challenge of determining the time on the train and keeping it in sync with the clocks at the station, which kept Einstein busy in the patent office.

[12강 - Exercise 8]

Long-term elephant groups are composed exclusively of adult females and juvenile males and females. Elephant leaders are typically chosen from among the oldest females in the group, and this matriarch is relied on to coordinate group movements, migration, and responses to threats, such as lions. The leader's role in these situations is to call the other elephants to action and direct them toward threats or opportunities. She doesn't dash out in front to provide protection (when threatened by lions, all the adults position themselves in front to protect their young); nor does she suffer hardships on behalf of her group. The leadership she provides is in the form of guidance. Because leadership does not give her preferential access to food sources or mating opportunities, elephant leaders do not gain unique benefits from their position.

[12강 - Exercise 9~11]

My friend, Jenny, had recently moved into a small apartment as a result of a divorce. She was unable to keep her pedigree dog in such cramped accommodation. But she was able to find a good home for the dog with a kind elderly woman who had another dog of the same breed. One day, the elderly woman called Jenny at work to ask if she would be able to drive her from her suburban home to the doctor in the city for an appointment. The elderly woman was desperate and could not find any other means of transport. Jenny was running a small advertising business at the time that was just getting by. Being her own boss, she was able to take the time off to drive the woman to her appointment. That began a regular private taxi service for the dear old woman. Jenny didn't mind taking her to the dentist or wherever, because she got joy out of helping her and it was a welcome break from the grind of her work. One morning the elderly woman called to ask if Jenny were free to take her to an important appointment with her lawyer. Jenny obliged, as usual, and dropped the elderly woman outside her lawyer's office in town. She asked politely if Jenny could spare a few more moments to accompany her inside, which Jenny happily did. There, in front of her lawyer, to her astonishment, she made her the sole beneficiary of her estate, which was substantial. The elderly woman was to die soon after. Jenny was amazed at her good fortune. She was only being kind and, anyway, she enjoyed looking after her. The last thing that she expected was to inherit such wealth.

[Mini Test 01 – 01]

Dear Councilmember Reid, I am pleased to see you are living up to your campaign promises on the issue of traffic improvements. There are far too many individual traffic situations needing attention to enumerate them all, but I would like to draw your attention to a particular intersection. The intersection of Main and Center Streets in Springfield is filled with danger for the dozens of elementary school children who cross these streets every day. Without a traffic light or crosswalk there, it is only a matter of time until tragedy strikes. Please pay special attention to this situation before the new school year starts. Your constituents will thank you; their children will thank you. Yours faithfully, Brandon Hardesty

[Mini Test 01 – 02]

Outside the airport doors, I confronted the usual collection of cab drivers waiting to prey on arriving visitors. The cab was like a toaster on wheels and I was the bread - white bread - processed and enriched! My old taxi moved slowly into downtown Dar with its passenger bothered by heat. What I saw was neither pretty nor inviting, but I praised God when we finally arrived at my hotel of choice - until I saw that it was no longer there. Minutes later, we arrived at my second choice. I was by that time thoroughly cooked from the toaster taxi and ready to be buttered. At the first hotel I was able to recognize as being a hotel, I asked my driver to stop and quickly jumped out of the cab. Welcome to the Hotel Continental: TV, toilet and shower, across from the railroad station, two blocks from the ocean, six or seven blocks from downtown, breakfast included. Perfect! I was home at last!

[Mini Test 01 – 03]

There is an inspiring thing that ambitious and successful people normally do. You will have been doing this if you are ambitious. They dream and fantasise. In line with Mark Victor Hansen's prescription, they make up a dream list comprising at least one hundred prioritised goals that they want to accomplish in their lifetime. Then they imagine that they have all the money, time, friends, and other resources needed to achieve these goals. Amazingly, after doing this, they soon experience tremendous progress as extraordinary things begin to happen in their lives. It is recommended that you do the same. This will give you leverage to set out on the adventure of moving from success to greatness. Thomas Edison said, 'We shall have no better conditions in the future if we are satisfied with all those which we have at present.'

[Mini Test 01 – 04]

We love our children and do not want to see them struggle, so we do things for them. The story of the man who was walking in the forest and saw a butterfly struggling to get out of its cocoon illustrates this point. The man went over to the butterfly and very carefully took out his knife and slit open the side of the cocoon so that the butterfly could get out more easily. The beautiful butterfly flew away for about ten yards, then fell to the ground, and died of exhaustion. You see, the butterfly needed to build up his strength and stamina by struggling to get out of the cocoon. When the man made it easier for the butterfly to fly away without developing fully, the butterfly could not live in the world on his own. When we do things for our children instead of letting them learn how to do things for themselves, we deprive them of the strengths they need to survive in the real world when we are not there. One change we can make as parents is to change from doing to and doing for, to doing with our children.

[Mini Test 01 – 05]

Species inhabiting unstable environments are opportunists. They must seize resources while they are there and to achieve this they must be able to reproduce rapidly. Producing large numbers of progeny, they can afford only the minimum investment in each. In plants, small seeds containing few nutrients are released in huge numbers. Among animals, large numbers of eggs are laid and abandoned to their fate or, if they are mammals, large litters are produced several times a year. Survival rates for the progeny are low, but the resource is overwhelmed and competitors are excluded by sheer weight of numbers. As a reproductive strategy it is highly successful and is known as r-selection ('selection' because it results not from some deliberate scheme devised by the organisms or their ancestors, but by natural selection, which favours it). It is a typical adaptation to unstable environments, shared by primary colonizers of newly cleared sites.

[Mini Test 01 – 06]

Domestication had long-range consequences for the animals themselves; the very nature of the animals changed throughout the process - typically not in the animals' favor. Through domestication, once-wild animals become increasingly more dependent on humans, physically and emotionally. Because a handful of traits (such as curiosity, lack of fear, willingness to try new things, food begging, submissiveness, etc.) found among the juveniles of a species are those selected in domestication, the physical traits of the young (shorter faces, excess fat, smaller brains, smaller teeth, etc.) will also be selected. This leads to modern domesticates that are physically and behaviorally unable to live independently and that are, in fact, perpetual juveniles. Once humans began selectively breeding their animal charges to emphasize or discourage certain physical or behavioral traits, the animals changed even further. Today, domesticates are, for the most part, smaller (yet fleshier), more brightly colored, with shorter faces, and rounder skulls. In addition, domestication has resulted in a permanent loss of genetic diversity within the species.

[Mini Test 01 – 07]

If we are going to decrease the number of cases of food poisoning, then everyone who interacts with the food in any way from the farm to the table must take responsibility for the safety of his or her food. Food scientists believe that one of the least controlled steps from farm to table is in the home or wherever consumers handle and prepare the food after they buy it. This belief goes back to the idea that foods are inherently unsafe in their natural state and that a scientific understanding of what causes safety problems leads to development of technology that provides safer foods. Food companies that produce the packaged foods we buy and restaurants that prepare the meals we eat have access to this knowledge, but many consumers do not. When food inspectors went into homes using the same forms they use in restaurants, they found that more than 99% of homes failed!

[Mini Test 01 – 08]

The above graph shows the percentages of consumers from five selected countries who distrusted the safety of self-driving cars, from 2017 to 2020. In all five countries, the percentages of consumers distrustful of self-driving cars in 2020 were lower than those in 2017. In 2017, the smallest percentage of distrustful consumers among the five countries was found in India, whereas in 2020 it was found in Germany. In each year from 2017 to 2020, the Republic of Korea and Japan experienced a steady decrease in the percentage of distrustful consumers, but in the U.S. and Germany, the percentages of distrustful consumers fluctuated. In all the countries except India, the percentages of distrustful consumers were below 50% in 2020. The biggest gap in the percentages of distrustful consumers between 2017 and 2020 was found in the Republic of Korea, and the smallest gap was found in India.

[Mini Test 01 – 09]

Louis Agassiz was born on May 28, 1807, in Motier, Switzerland. He earned a medical degree from the University of Munich and a Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Erlangen. From 1829 to 1842, he focused on the study of fossil fishes and published studies of the natural history of Brazilian and European fishes. In 1836, Agassiz turned his attention to the geology of the Swiss Alps, his boyhood home. His interest was stimulated by his own investigations of fossils in the region and by recent writings suggesting that the existing glaciers had once been more extensive. He began to study the movement and effects of glaciers. Leading geologists thought that glaciers were static, but Agassiz noted evidence suggesting that glaciers moved, causing striations, or grooves, in rock and depositing massive boulders and debris. From his observations he concluded that in the past much of northern Europe had been covered in ice; he published this theory in 1840.

[Mini Test 01 – 12]

There are many reasons why diets are unsuccessful. Diet plans, particularly those that result in major losses, involve voluntary starvation. Low-fat diets eliminate the component in our food that carries flavor and enhances the eating experience during chewing, termed mouthfeel by food scientists. Since fat stays in the stomach longer than other food components, the time between feeling full and feeling hungry again for low-fat dieters is shorter. People on these diets tend to be hungry most of the time. High-protein, low-carb diets are more desirable and filling but tend to be high in fat unless whole foods are abandoned for protein powders, shakes, and bars. Diets high in water and fiber are filling and low in calories, but a lack of variety can become monotonous fairly quickly. All of these diets tend to eliminate favorite foods. It is possible to tell ourselves that we can forgo these temptations until we reach our target weight, but it is harder to be true to a diet if it means forever abstaining from what gives us pleasure.

[Mini Test 01 – 13]

When do we share? What are the politics of equality? Horizontal herding patterns emerge when our times are safe and our resources plenty, such as those we find in democracies. Leadership in these situations is temporary, weak, and sometimes hardly existent. The security of the home spills over into the streets and promotes this mindset; everyone must be provided for and the weakest shall get the most attention. This social outlook creates the circumstances conducive to republics, democracies, and communes. These forms of government emerge in times of wealth and commercial exchange where socially we are surrounded by security and plenty. In such social situations, decisiveness is not likely vital. Threats are few; expanding wealth and sharing it receives our attention. We are tolerant. Risk and change are okay. The richer and safer society becomes, the more we bring "family style" morality into the public square.

[Mini Test 01 – 14]

Young children are sensitive to inequality, expect it from others but not of themselves and are reluctant to share. There is, however, one set of circumstances which seems to trigger spontaneous sharing in children: those situations where they have to work together in order to gain a mutual benefit. Michael Tomasello and his colleagues in Leipzig set about testing his idea about the importance of cooperation in the evolution of human pro-sociality. Pairs of three-year-olds had to work together to pull on two ropes simultaneously in order to dislodge four marbles. The apparatus was designed so that it delivered three marbles to one child but only one to the other. In this situation, the 'lucky' child gave one of his three marbles to the 'unlucky' child. However, when there was no need for a collective effort, such as a windfall, they did not share.

[Mini Test 01 – 15]

In view of the many valuations we assign time, and in view of the fact that time is our most valuable commodity, it is striking to note how little thought we give to how we spend it. If a slightly annoying acquaintance asked you to invest money in her new business, you would probably consider the potential costs and benefits of the proposed transaction. If you judged her project a bad investment, you would have no problem saying no, even at the risk of offending her. After all, who rationally throws money out the window? But suppose the same acquaintance asked you to dinner. Chances are you would not engage in a similar cost-benefit analysis. No matter how little you wanted to go, you would probably take an hour out of your packed schedule to meet for dinner - all the while perhaps feeling resentment because of the time you sacrificed on something you did not want to do.

[Mini Test 01 – 16]

Daniel Kahneman, an Israeli-American psychologist and economist, believes that in most situations, simple formulas trump human intuition. In many areas, such as the evaluation of credit risk, the chance of sudden infant death, the prospects of success for new businesses, or the suitability of foster parents, algorithms make more accurate predictions than "expert" practitioners. Humans are horribly inconsistent in their valuations; algorithms are not. Experts want to take account of a whole range of complex information, but usually only two or three parameters are enough to make a good judgment. For instance, there is an algorithm for predicting the future value of Bordeaux wines using only three variables of weather, and it is much more accurate than the evaluations of professional wine tasters. Intuition or global judgment can be useful, but only after getting the facts - it is not a replacement. Expert intuition can be trusted only when the environment is stable and regular (e.g., in chess), not open-ended and complex.

[Mini Test 01 – 17]

The introduction of magnetic tape into music production in the late 1940s brought with it important changes in the situation for the profession of the popular music composer, as it enabled musical parameters that were difficult to notate, such as timbre (the quality of sound itself) and melodic and rhythmic inflection, to be more easily handled on a trial-and-error basis during the recording and mixing process. With this, the function of the composer became integrated into the recording process, which was carried out much more as teamwork. Although for legal reasons there was always someone named as composer, in practice it became more and more difficult to distinguish who exactly contributed what during the recording process. This was particularly the case since the sound of the music was normally finalized after initial recording through the 'mixing down' of a multitrack recording and the editing of this mixdown in a postproduction process. Frequently, in the rock genre, songs were co-credited to the performer and the record producer - for example, Bryan Adams and Robert John 'Mutt' Lange.

[Mini Test 01 – 18]

Science fiction does not set out to predict the future - instead it's about asking, "What if?" for all kinds of scenarios. It doesn't matter if those possible futures are likely to happen or not, as long as they are interesting. The aim is to portray the human reaction to new and interesting circumstances. If the writer happens to be lucky enough to hit on a match with what really takes place in the future, that's great - but it certainly isn't the point of the stories. In the two words "science fiction," the "fiction" part has to dominate, because unless the book is a good tale, it doesn't matter how interesting or surprising the science it contains is.

[Mini Test 01 – 19]

A patient of mine who is more of an outwardly focused perfectionist feels angry when other people make errors, forget things, misplace objects that he needs, respond too slowly, or give him incorrect information. These kinds of things would probably bother most people, but for some perfectionists these errors feel personal. It can seem as if others are intentionally doing these things just to irritate you. In most cases, these situations are not that simple. They do not involve just the perpetrator (the one who made the mistake) trying to do harm to the victim (the perfectionist). There are usually many other circumstances that influence the situation. For example, the person giving misinformation may be new on the job, may have been misinformed by her boss, may be correct under different circumstances, or may have misunderstood the question. When you oversimplify, none of these "excuses" matter because you are focused only on the wrong-doing and your upset feelings.

[Mini Test 01 – 20]

In 1920 two scientists discovered that plants, and especially their flowers, are peculiarly responsive to the length of the day. This varies from about twelve hours at the equator (a short-day region) to almost twenty-four hours at the Arctic Circle during their brief summer (a long- day region). Such astronomical data has, of course, been known for centuries, but Doctors Garner and Allard were the first to point out its significance to plants and their flowers. For instance, a short-day plant brought into a long-day region increased tremendously in vigor. Sometimes it changed its flower color, and most of all it changed its time of blooming. And this striking effect of the length of the day on flowers has already been commercially recognized. Florists, by darkening the greenhouses for retardation of bloom, or by electric illumination to speed it up, can now deliver flowers with far greater precision than before. This process was given its rather repulsive name of photoperiodism by its authors. It was a major discovery in the plant world.

[Mini Test 01 – 21]

Clearly, bright colours are advantageous for prey defences. But how did they evolve? One possibility is that conspicuous colours evolved first, followed by distastefulness. For example, some brightly coloured birds like kingfishers are distasteful. Their colours may have been favoured for better mate attraction or territory defence and then, because they also increased conspicuousness to predators, this then favoured the evolution of distastefulness. The other possibility is that distastefulness came first. This may apply to those insects, such as caterpillars of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus, which feed on plants containing toxins and incorporate the toxins in their bodies as a defence against predation. It is plausible that here distastefulness evolved first followed by conspicuousness. In this case, then, bright colouration evolves specifically as a warning device.

[Mini Test 01 – 22]

It is sometimes said that the job of science is to discover facts. This has to be qualified, however. The empiricist Francis Bacon (1561-1626) thought that collecting facts like a bee gathers honey is the right method of doing science: doing research is systematically collecting observations and compiling lists of data, and if the scientist does that carefully the scientific laws will be discovered automatically. However, it is highly implausible that science has ever been done in such a way because it is not an automatic process at all. One always starts from preconceived ideas when gathering data. You cannot do science without some power of imagination, without some idea of what to look for. For Bacon, however, imagination and fantasy constitute dangers for science, which should eschew prejudices ('idols'), and he put all his money on 'pure' empirical facts.

[Mini Test 01 – 23]

It is a marvelous evolutionary story that some sports arrived at their superfast-but- not-too-fast timing. Tennis and baseball could have been structured to demand faster reactions, which would have tested pure reflexes. Or they could have allowed for slower reactions, which would have tested conscious responses. But if the service line or pitching mound had been just thirty feet away - or two hundred feet away - the games would have been less compelling. At closer distances, the players would have had just enough time to react and hit, but not enough time to show off their preconscious preparatory skills. And at longer distances, players could have planned too much; incoming serves and pitches would have been lobs. Our fascination with the professional tennis serve and the major league fast ball comes not at a response time of two hundred milliseconds or at one full second, but somewhere in between. Four to five hundred milliseconds is a kind of sporting sweet spot.

[Mini Test 01 – 24~25]

On a very cold day in winter normally shy birds become quite tame at the garden bird table, presumably because their increased need for food overrides the danger of coming into the open. Manfred Milinski and Rolf Heller studied a similar problem with sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). They placed hungry fish in a small tank and offered them a simultaneous choice of different densities of water fleas, a favourite food. When the fish were very hungry they went for the highest density of prey where the potential feeding rate was high, but when they were less hungry the fish preferred lower densities of prey. Milinski and Heller hypothesised that when the fish feeds in a high density area, it has to concentrate hard to pick out water fleas from the swarm darting around in its field of vision, so it is less able to keep watch for predators. A very hungry fish runs a relatively high chance of dying from starvation and so is willing to sacrifice vigilance in order to reduce its food deficit quickly. When the stickleback is not so hungry it places a higher premium on vigilance than on feeding quickly, so it prefers the low density of prey. The balance of costs and benefits shifts from feeding to vigilance as the stickleback becomes less hungry.

[Mini Test 01 – 26~28]

Two monks were traveling together, a senior and a junior. They stopped to spend the night in the home of a wealthy family. The family was rude and refused to let them stay in the mansion's guest room. Instead they were given a small space in the cold basement. As they made their bed on the hard floor, the older monk saw a hole in the wall and repaired it. When the younger monk asked him why, he replied, "Things aren't always what they seem." The next night the pair came to rest at the house of a very poor, but very hospitable farmer and his wife. After sharing all the food they had, the couple let the monks sleep in their bed, where the monks could have a good night's rest. When the sun came up the next morning, the monks found the farmer in tears. His only cow, whose milk had been his sole income, lay dead in the field. It looked like he couldn't understand why this had happened to him. The younger monk was infuriated and asked the older monk, "How could you have let this happen?" And he continued, "The first man had everything, yet you helped him. The second family had little but was willing to share everything, and you let the cow die." "Things aren't always what they seem," the older monk replied. "When we stayed in the basement of the mansion, I noticed there was gold stored in that hole in the wall. Since the owner was so obsessed with greed and unwilling to share his good fortune, I sealed the wall so he wouldn't find it." "Then last night as we slept in the farmer's bed, the Death God came for his wife. I gave him the cow instead. Things aren't always what they seem." He continued, "Sometimes there is a time when things don't turn out the way they should. If you have faith, you just need to trust that every outcome has a reason. You just might not know it until sometime later."

[Mini Test 02 – 01]

Dear Ron Smith, Often, in our industry (and I guess in yours as well), when a challenging plan or project is successfully brought to completion, we tend to remember the problems and the disputes rather than the pleasures of accomplishment. Happily, this is decidedly not the case with the completion of our office move thanks to you and your dedicated team. Paul McGill, our corporate facilities manager, joins me in extending our particular appreciation to the on-site estimator, Jack Vaknin and the project manager, Yaron Golan. Both were always ready to come up with a straightforward solution for any occurring problem. We are happy to say that everything arrived in superb condition at the correct destination. Thank you again for all your help. We are looking forward to working with you again in the future. All the best, Andrea Berg Office Manager

[Mini Test 02 – 02]

After two hours of trekking through the valley, Daniel returned to the starting point. Now he began to take another trail through the dark forest. The sun was beginning to set and it was even darker. Soon he found himself lost and wandering in circles. He mumbled to himself, "I must have gone the wrong way or something." His phone battery was almost running out. Now Daniel was about to call 911 and ask for emergency help. At that moment, he saw a tour guide with her group walk past him and decided to follow them. She ended up leading him straight out of the woods. Daniel didn't say a word to the tour guide and her group. As they disappeared from sight, he sighed deeply, thinking he was now out of danger.

[Mini Test 02 – 03]

Nothing destroys a sense of gratitude faster than being told we "should" feel grateful. Some "should"s are necessary in teaching manners to children. But when we try to experience gratitude as a living force in our lives, guilt, whether imposed by others or by ourselves, is deadly. We've probably all had someone in our lives tell us we should be grateful for something, or perhaps we say it to ourselves. Either way, this is the least likely way to promote an attitude of gratitude. As far as I can tell, gratitude is generated in two ways: one, by a spontaneous upswelling of the heart toward the wonder of life; and two, by a conscious decision to practice looking at what's right in our lives rather than focusing on what's missing. Either way, we don't get to gratitude by guilt-trips. Guilt is a terrible motivator. It makes us want to run away from whatever is making us feel bad, and to avoid looking at whatever is underlying it.

[Mini Test 02 – 04]

There are hundreds of chimpanzees who have spent their whole lives in human captivity. They've been institutionalized. They've been like prisoners, and in the course of the day they hear probably about as many words as a child does. They never show any interest. They apparently never get curious about what those sounds are for. They can hear all the speech, but it's like the rustling of the leaves. They never get to share discoveries the way we do and to share our learning. That is the single feature about human beings that distinguishes us most clearly from all others: we don't have to reinvent the wheel. Our kids get the benefit of not just what grandpa and grandma knew. They get the benefit of basically what everybody in the world knew, in the years when they go to school. They don't have to invent calculus or maps or the wheel or fire. They get all that for free. It just comes as part of the environment.

[Mini Test 02 – 05]

Beyond self-replication and the copying of minds, people have another concern with intelligent machines. Might intelligent machines somehow threaten large portions of the population, as nuclear bombs do? Might their presence lead to the superempowerment of small groups or malevolent individuals? Or might the machines become evil and work against us, like the implacable villains in The Terminator or the Matrix movies? The answer to these questions is no. As information devices, brainlike memory systems are going to be among the most useful technologies we have yet developed. But like cars and computers, they will only be tools. Just because they are going to be intelligent does not mean they will have special abilities to destroy property or manipulate people. And just as we wouldn't put the control of the world's nuclear arsenal under the authority of one person or one computer, we will have to be careful not to rely too much on intelligent machines, for they will fail as all technology does.

[Mini Test 02 – 06]

We are witnessing, across a wide range of domains, a shift away from the exclusive ownership and consumption of resources to one of shared use and consumption. This shift is taking advantage of innovative new ways of peer-to-peer sharing that are voluntary and enabled by Internet-based exchange markets and mediation platforms. Value is derived from the fact that many resources are acquired to satisfy infrequent demand but are otherwise poorly utilized (for example, the average car in the US is used less than 5% of the time). Several successful businesses, such as Getaround for cars, Spinlister for bikes, and JustPark for parking, provide a proof of concept and evidence for the viability of peer-to-peer product sharing or collaborative consumption. These businesses allow owners to rent on a short-term basis poorly utilized assets and non-owners to access these assets through renting on an as-needed basis. Collectively, these businesses and other manifestations of the collaborative consumption of products and services are giving rise to what is becoming known as the sharing economy.

[Mini Test 02 – 07]

Carbon emissions trading - the buying and selling of permits to emit greenhouse gases caused by burning fossil fuels - is becoming a top strategy for reducing pollution that causes global climate change. Advocates say carbon trading is the best way to generate big investments in low-carbon energy alternatives and control the cost of cutting emissions. But carbon trading schemes in Europe and developing countries have a mixed record. Some industries are resisting carbon regulations, and programs intended to help developing countries onto a clean energy path have bypassed many poor nations, which are the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Some experts argue that there are simpler, more direct ways to put a price on carbon emissions, such as taxes. Others say curbing climate change will require both taxes and trading, plus massive government investments in low-carbon energy technologies.

[Mini Test 02 – 08]

The graph above shows the top five US states based on the number of milk cows in each state from 2018 to 2020. Throughout the three years, California had by far the largest number of milk cows, but the number dropped by 5,000 each year. Wisconsin had more than 1,250,000 milk cows each year during the period, maintaining a firm second place. The number of milk cows in Idaho continued to increase from 2018 to 2020, but its number of milk cows remained about half that of Wisconsin during the same period. New York had more than 600,000 milk cows in 2018. The number of milk cows in Texas was less than 600,000 both in 2018 and 2019, but exceeded 600,000 in 2020.

[Mini Test 02 – 09]

Born into a Quaker family in Thetford, England, in 1737, Thomas Paine later recalled that his parents "were not able to give me a shilling, beyond what they gave me in education." After he left Thetford Grammar School, Paine worked as a corset maker, a profession that earned him a modest living. He tried a seaman's life aboard the ship King of Prussia but abandoned it quickly. In 1772 he was fired from a job as customs officer after writing an essay demanding higher wages. In 1774 he immigrated to America. In the turbulent political environment of the colonies, Paine found a situation suited to his talents. As the editor of The Pennsylvania Magazine, he published essays such as "Reflections on Titles," in which he attacked the institution of hereditary privilege, and "The Abolition of Slavery." He believed that American independence would lead to a new age, free of class and social distinctions.

[Mini Test 02 – 12]

As instructional technology tools were developing, the level of technology sometimes drove the learning experience. However, it is the learning outcome that must be the focus of the activity, not the technological tool used to implement the activity. Thus, designing online activities is very similar to designing classroom-based activities. To determine whether a classroom-based activity is adaptable to the online environment, the activity must first be examined to see that it meets the learning outcomes of the online course. Often a classroom-based course is redesigned before it is put online, and learning outcomes or objectives are modified. Every activity should be scrutinized to determine whether it matches a learning objective. An activity that does not contribute to a learning outcome only adds confusion to the course and risks learner dissatisfaction at having to do an unnecessary activity.

[Mini Test 02 – 13]

Plants must survive in their own environment. They must be adapted to the conditions in the area where they live. If they are not adapted to that area's conditions, they grow and reproduce poorly or die prematurely. Other plants whose genes result in characters that make those plants more suited to live in that area grow and reproduce more successfully and produce more offspring. Also, plants do not exist in isolation: A significant aspect of a plant's environment is the presence of other organisms. Some neighboring organisms may be helpful to the plant; others may be harmful, and most perhaps have little effect on it. This concept can be important when trying to understand a plant's structure and metabolism. One type of photosynthetic metabolism and leaf structure may function well if a particular plant always grows in the shade of taller neighbors, whereas a different type of photosynthetic metabolism and leaf structure may be necessary for a plant that grows nearby but in an unshaded area.

[Mini Test 02 – 14]

Physical forces that control the world are the same all the time and everywhere. Water has always been and always will be composed of hydrogen and oxygen; gravity is the same now as it has been in the past. The world itself changes - mountains erode, rivers change course, plants evolve - but the forces remain the same. Experiments done at one time and place should give the same results if they are carefully repeated at a different time and place. Constancy and universality allow us to plan future experiments and predict what the outcome should be. If we do the experiment and do not get the predicted outcome, it must be that our theory was incorrect, not that the fundamental forces of the world have suddenly changed. This prevents people from explaining things as miracles or the intervention of evil spirits.

[Mini Test 02 – 15]

Many animal or plant species have proved to be very useful for medical purposes. Through millions of years of evolution, they have evolved many special chemicals to meet their special needs in their respective niches, which can be exploited by man. The saliva of the vampire bat of Central and South America contains a substance to prevent heart attacks. The Malayan pit viper contains a substance called ristrin, which has similar properties. Caribbean sponges can be used to tackle rejection of organ transplants. Rauvolfia serpentina, the serpent wood plant, has been traditionally used in India to treat snake bite, nervous disorders, cholera and fever. Reserpine, an extract from the plant, has become the principal source of materials for tranquilizers. Domesticated animals have given us hormones and enzymes, while fungi and microbes provide life-saving drugs such as antibiotics.

[Mini Test 02 – 16]

The development of food habits clearly indicates that for humans, food is more than just nutrients. Bread is an excellent example. White bread was traditionally eaten by the upper classes, dark bread by the poor, but whole wheat bread is consumed today by people concerned more with health than status. A person with money has "a lot of bread." In many cultures, bread is shared by couples as part of the wedding ceremony or left for the soul of the dead. Superstitions about bread also demonstrate its importance beyond sustenance. Greek soldiers took a piece from home to ensure their safe, victorious return; English midwives placed a loaf at the foot of the mother's bed to prevent the woman and her baby from being stolen by evil spirits; and sailors traditionally brought a bun to sea to prevent shipwreck. It is the symbolic use of food that is valued most by people, not its nutritional composition.

[Mini Test 02 – 17]

In a classic piece of psychology research, a primary school teacher and a professor teamed up to study how far expectations drive outcomes. To do so, they administered IQ tests to California pupils in grades one through six. Teachers were told that certain pupils - around 20 percent - showed great promise and could be expected to make exceptional progress. At the end of the year, that forecast proved true: the IQ of the nominated pupils showed superior improvement. But, like all great social psychology experiments, this one had a catch. The "high-potential students" had been chosen at random. What came to be known as the Pygmalion effect argued that it is expectations, more than innate ability, that influence outcomes. Never mind who's gifted, who's talented. Expect great things and you are more likely to get them. The talent, energy, insight, and opportunity of any organization lie with its people. They are where all ideas come from; they are its best early-warning system.

[Mini Test 02 – 18]

Because ways of thinking and communicating in any society are learned when we are very young, they seem natural and normal, like our use of the bathroom. As adults care for, speak to, and play with their babies, they are at the same time gradually turning a biological being into a social being, who will learn as it grows to share the language he or she absorbs, spoken and unspoken. Babies pick up signals through all their senses, and the emphasis on communicating through different senses is another variable feature from one social group to another. Sounds, for example, which babies may at first seem to use indiscriminately, gradually take on a meaning shared with the surrounding adults, and they soon learn when and where it is appropriate and useful to apply those sounds to maximum effect. They also learn when some other form of communication, such as smiling, laughing, or crying, might transmit better what they have in their highly absorbent minds.

[Mini Test 02 – 19]

Physiological responses that prepare the body for food occur in response to cues normally related to eating. These cues are such things as the sight or smell of food, other people eating, and the clattering of dishes. This means that hunger also is a response to environmental cues that indicate food is on the way, rather than simply being a response to specific changes occurring within the body. Another control over eating is the incentive value of food. The early phases of eating depend on the taste of food, but as you continue eating the same food, its positive incentive value declines. The first taste of barbecued ribs may be wonderful, but they lose their appeal with each bite. Because of this, you tend to eat more when there is a variety of food available rather than just one type of food. Food variety matters in how much you eat.

[Mini Test 02 – 20]

Every human contact we experience is unique. It has never happened before and will never again happen in just the same way. Our interpretation of the adage "You can never step into the same river twice" is that the experience changes both you and the river forever. A communication encounter similarly affects and changes people so that one encounter can never occur exactly in the same way a second time. In addition to being unrepeatable, communication is also irreversible. We cannot take back something we have said or tweeted any more than we can erase the effects of something we have done. Just as toothpaste cannot be squeezed back into a tube, the e-mails, texts, and tweets we send are going to be out there forever. Because of this, knowing how to communicate carefully in a wide variety of contexts and with a variety of people becomes very important.

[Mini Test 02 – 21]

When two objects at different temperatures come into contact, the warmer object cools down, and the colder object warms up. Heat flows from hot bodies to cold ones and continues to flow until the objects reach the same temperature, which will be somewhere between the two initial temperatures. This is thermal equilibrium. For example, a marble at 65'F (18.3'C) and a small steel ball at 75'F (23.9'C) placed together might both end up at a temperature of 68'F (20'C), which is the thermal equilibrium temperature. The heat transfers in this case by conduction - the contact allows the atomic and molecular motion of one solid object to influence the other. A further change may take place, as the marble and steel gradually adopt the temperature of the surroundings (for instance, the room that holds the objects). After that, there is no change, unless the room temperature changes.

[Mini Test 02 – 22]

Traditional forms of media, such as television, radio, and print, provide an excellent means of reaching vast amounts of people quickly, but their downside is that these touches are both brief and scarce. This works if the objective is to create awareness, but it falls short of creating loyalty for an organization or a cause. Loyalty, unlike awareness, takes time to develop. It finds its roots in the trust, familiarity and respect that stem from frequent interactions with an organization, and the repetitive validation of a value alignment without which these interactions are meaningless. Through the use of social media, organizations can breed loyalty in their members by interacting regularly with them, befriending them, and empowering them to make a difference. The magic stems from the fact that social media can help humanize communications to such a degree that genuine friendships can begin to form between an organization's staff and the members they interact with online, even if they have never met in the real world. The depth of these interactions, combined with their potential frequency, can accelerate this process to such an extent that a new member can begin to feel loyal to an organization in a matter of days rather than in a matter of months.

[Mini Test 02 – 23]

Have you ever wondered why companies offer a free sample of products, test drives, or trial subscriptions for 1 month, or 14-day free trial? Many brands use money-back guarantee and free day trial strategy to pull the customer into the product. They know that these strategies make consumers overvalue and pay more for what they're selling. When they put the expiry date on the availability of freebies, it also triggers loss aversion and creates a sense of urgency for added potency. In the same way, lots of audiobook and podcast apps offer free trial. Once we get to hang on to it, we feel the desire to purchase the subscription. Many e-commerce companies also use this strategy to let customers order multiple dresses or any products with a promise that they can return the items that they don't like for free of cost.

[Mini Test 02 – 24~25]

Many people who understand human social evolution as a story of continual progress fail to appreciate the role that environmental degradation has played. Commonly, people believe that the change from food foraging to agriculture happened because people traded an insecure way of life for one that was more secure and satisfying. Little evidence exists to support this view. Rather, climate changes that "shrank" livable environments, human population growth, the exhaustion of edible plant and large animal populations, and the discoveries and innovations that made dependence on agriculture possible all combined to cause this transformation. Furthermore, fossil records and archaeological evidence confirm that hunter-gatherers did not abandon their lifestyle until forced to do so by the problems, and did so at different times and in widely scattered areas around the world. A similar combination of environmental problems, scarcities, and technological possibilities caused the decline of ancient empires (like the Mayans, Mesopotamians, and Romans) and stimulated the emergence of industrial societies. The growth of innovations and technologies produced more complex human systems having ever-larger productive capacities to support human populations. Elites may have benefited from an enhanced ability to extend their control and powers of taxation across larger systems. Non-elites, however, often did not change their lifestyles from positive attractions but rather to survive when they had no other choices. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, established farmers often did not willingly move to cities seeking urban employment, but the story of rural to urban migration is also one of progressive rural poverty, bankruptcy, and foreclosed farm mortgages.

[Mini Test 02 – 26~28]

A group of frogs were hopping contentedly through the woods, going about their froggy business, when two of them fell into a deep pit. All of the other frogs gathered around the pit to see what could be done to help their companions. When they saw how deep the pit was, the rest of the dismayed group agreed that it was hopeless and told the two frogs in the pit that they should prepare themselves for their fate, because they were as good as dead. Unwilling to accept this terrible fate, the two frogs began to jump with all of their might. Some of the frogs shouted into the pit that it was hopeless, and that the two frogs wouldn't be in that situation if they had been more careful, more obedient to the froggy rules, and more responsible. The other frogs continued sorrowfully shouting that they should save their energy and give up, since they were already as good as dead. The two frogs continued jumping as hard as they could, and after several hours of desperate effort they were quite weary. Finally, one of the frogs paid attention to the calls of his fellows. Spent and disheartened, he quietly resolved himself to his fate, lay down at the bottom of the pit, and died as the others looked on in helpless grief. The other frog continued to jump with every ounce of energy he had, although his body was wracked with pain. His companions began a new yelling for him to accept his fate, stop the pain and just die. The weary frog jumped harder and harder and - wonder of wonders! Finally leapt so high that he sprang from the pit. Amazed, the other frogs celebrated his miraculous freedom and then gathering around him asked, "Why did you continue jumping when we told you it was impossible?" Reading their lips, the astonished frog explained to them that he was deaf, and that when he saw their gestures and shouting, he thought they were cheering him on. What he had perceived as encouragement inspired him to try hard and to succeed against all odds.