[2025 수특영어: 1강 – Gateway]

[Flow Edu] flowedu.tistory.com

[고3] 2025년 수능특강 영어 – 지문정리 (문제 제작용)

I'm Charlie Reeves, manager of Toon Skills Company. If you're interested in new webtoon-making skills and techniques, this post is for you. This year, we've launched special online courses, which contain a variety of contents about webtoon production. Each course consists of ten units that help improve your drawing and story-telling skills. Moreover, these courses are designed to suit any level, from beginner to advanced. It costs $45 for one course, and you can watch your course as many times as you want for six months. Our courses with talented and experienced instructors will open up a new world of creativity for you. It's time to start creating your webtoon world at https://webtoonskills.com.

[2025 수특영어: 1강 – 01]

Dear Dave and Gretchen, We hope all is well with you and your family. At last, spring is in the air, and that means summer can't be far behind. For the past several years we have taken much pleasure in sharing our cottage on Mirror Pond with you and some of our other close friends. This year, though, I'm afraid we must do things a bit differently. The expense of maintaining the house has gone up quite a bit, and for at least the coming summer we have decided to put the cottage on the market as a rental property. We already have several leads from people who are considering taking the cottage for most or all of the summer. We hope you understand. And if we end up with some unbooked time in the fall, we'll let you know. Sincerely, Sandy Webb

[2025 수특영어: 1강 – 02]

Dear Mr. Butler, I am James Franklin, principal of Grandview High School. Each year we provide engaging events to bring our school's community together. This year, we are trying to have a chess tournament. We think that it will create a healthy competitive atmosphere and help students make new friends. And some of the students in our school chess club are showing very promising results and are aiming to participate in the City Chess Tournament. They are practicing hard for the tournament. However, due to our school's budgetary constraints, we had to cut back on school supplies. To offer our students the best education possible, we need the supplies to keep our chess club running. We would like to ask that you help us continue the chess club by donating money. If you contribute to our school, you'll be a hero to the students who are pursuing their dream of becoming chess players. Sincerely, James Franklin

[2025 수특영어: 1강 – 03]

To Whom It May Concern I am writing to you about an issue with my recent mobile phone order. I ordered a silver model, but I was sent a black one. However, I decided to use it anyway. Nevertheless, I could not save numbers in it, and the battery would not even last a day on a full charge. When I contacted customer service, the representative asked me to return the phone and promised to send a replacement. That was two weeks ago, and I still have not received the new phone. I would highly appreciate it if you could send me the replacement phone ― in silver and with a healthy battery ― as soon as possible. I look forward to your prompt action on my request. Thanks, John Smith

[2025 수특영어: 1강 – 04]

Dear Mr. Scott, If you ask your administrative employees, they will probably agree that copier maintenance is critical to a successful office. Our research shows that the typical business will use copy equipment about six months before repairing or replacing it. Historically, when you have needed service, the only option has been to call a repairperson at a very high cost. Fortunately, there is now a service that can extend the life of your copier and save your company thousands of dollars during the next year. Lake Paperworx specializes in copier maintenance, successfully serving business and legal firms throughout the United States. We can significantly reduce your maintenance costs and your downtime. The enclosed brochure outlines our services. If you are interested in using our services, please call me directly at 920-4848-1212. Sincerely, James Palmer Lake Paperworx Business Manager

[2025 수특영어: 2강 – Gateway]

David was starting a new job in Vancouver, and he was waiting for his bus. He kept looking back and forth between his watch and the direction the bus would come from. He thought, "My bus isn't here yet. I can't be late on my first day." David couldn't feel at ease. When he looked up again, he saw a different bus coming that was going right to his work. The bus stopped in front of him and opened its door. He got on the bus thinking, "Phew! Luckily, this bus came just in time so I won't be late." He leaned back on an unoccupied seat in the bus and took a deep breath, finally able to relax.

[2025 수특영어: 2강 – 01]

Olivia pulled a piece of bright yellow silk from the display. In her free hand she held a sample of beaded lace and tried to imagine the sound it would make whispering around her ankles as she danced. Now that the war was over, there would be a lot of dancing. Anticipation bubbled in her chest. She'd meet a real gentleman this season, and who knew? Maybe she would get married. "May I help you?" A shopkeeper stood beside her. "I would like five yards of this silk and a roll of this lace," Olivia said. "I'm very sorry, miss. They are already reserved." What a letdown! No other fabric would make her as beautiful as the yellow silk, and no other pearls would make such a charming whisper. With a sigh, she returned the items to the display.

[2025 수특영어: 2강 – 02]

Mr. Garcia walked to his closet and pulled a trumpet out of its case. He blew into it, you know, like he was clearing it all out. He ran his fingers along the valves and played a scale. And then he said, "Okay, Zach, ready?" And then he started playing. I mean the guy could play. He played this really soft and beautiful song. I never knew a trumpet could whisper. I kept looking at his fingers. I wanted him to keep playing forever. It was better than any of the poems he'd read to us in class. It was like the whole loud world had gone really, really quiet and there was nothing but this one song, this one sweet and gentle and brilliant song that was as soft as a breeze blowing through the leaves of a tree. The world just disappeared. I wanted to live in that stillness forever. I wanted to clap. And then, I just didn't know what to do or what to say.

[2025 수특영어: 2강 – 03]

A very large warrior approached and stood in front of Benny. The warrior took him by the arm, and Benny was convinced that he was going to be punished. He shivered with fear while being dragged. The warrior brought Benny to an open area of the village. There sat an old man. He seemed to be incredibly respected by all of the warriors. He introduced himself as Ailani, meaning "Highest Chief," and surprisingly enough, he spoke in the English language. He told Benny, "I have decided that we are not going to punish you. We do not punish good men, so you can relax." The chief continued, "I heard what you did for us. Your kindness makes me say welcome. Welcome to Life Island." Tears of relief poured down Benny's face.

[2025 수특영어: 2강 – 04]

"I think everyone is here now! Shall we all sit down?" Everyone was more than happy to cooperate and soon the whole group was settled in their chairs around the long dining room table, passing dishes filled with Charlotte's cooking. Soon, everyone had a full plate and conversation buzzed around the table between bites. Charlotte took a careful bite of her stuffing and found that the seasonings had all blended together beautifully to create a flavorful experience. She relaxed a bit more as she sampled the dishes on her plate and found that everything tasted good. Or, at least, she thought so. She just hoped everyone else felt the same way. As if reading her mind, Addison leaned over to her. "Everything tastes so delicious," she said quietly, patting her belly and indicating her already half-eaten plate. "You're going to have to roll me out of here when all is said and done." "Eat as much as you like," Charlotte replied with a laugh. "There's no judgment, especially on Thanksgiving!"

[2025 수특영어: 3강 – Gateway]

Being able to prioritize your responses allows you to connect more deeply with individual customers, be it a one-off interaction around a particularly delightful or upsetting experience, or the development of a longer-term relationship with a significantly influential individual within your customer base. If you've ever posted a favorable comment ― or any comment, for that matter ― about a brand, product or service, think about what it would feel like if you were personally acknowledged by the brand manager, for example, as a result. In general, people post because they have something to say ― and because they want to be recognized for having said it. In particular, when people post positive comments they are expressions of appreciation for the experience that led to the post. While a compliment to the person standing next to you is typically answered with a response like "Thank You," the sad fact is that most brand compliments go unanswered. These are lost opportunities to understand what drove the compliments and create a solid fan based on them.

[2025 수특영어: 3강 – 01]

One of the biggest misconceptions about creativity is that it takes a brilliant idea to solve a complex problem. While this may be true in pure sciences, in most commercial contexts, or even in day-to-day living, it is never that one silver bullet that does the magic. It is, in fact, a series of seemingly simple ideas that counts. The key is to have enough ideas that solve specific parts of the overall problem, and then the thorny task looks very much tenable. Since creativity comes from combining concepts in an unusual fashion, and since it is exceedingly difficult to trace the origins of ideas, you are better off generating as many ideas as possible with the hope that some of them would click. That is what great scientists and artists do. As the author Walter Isaacson notes, 'The sparks come from ideas rubbing against each other rather than as bolts out of the blue.'

[2025 수특영어: 3강 – 02]

Sometimes it is hard to know the right thing to do for the planet. What sounds good may not necessarily be so. Rooftop solar panels, for example, are one of the most expensive and least effective ways to help the environment. Buying local food can actually increase water pollution and waste. According to research from the Danish and UK governments, plastic grocery bags may actually be better than cotton bags for the climate and for water. You may disagree with all or some of those claims, and you may be right. It depends on your individual circumstances. If you live in Phoenix, Arizona, for example, solar panels could be a smart choice. Using your own cotton bags continuously and without exception for shopping for several years is probably better for the environment than the alternatives. Each of these choices depends on personal circumstances and behavior. The best solutions for the environment are personal.

[2025 수특영어: 3강 – 03]

Consider people with disabilities. Often they are judged using criteria of competence that are biased in favor of nondisabled people. Compare, for example, an average blind person with an average sighted person. Who will be more competent in walking from one place to another? You might think that the sighted person will be more competent because the sighted person can see where he or she is going, but this is using an unfair criterion. If you think about competence based on the fairer criterion of who can best walk with the eyes closed, then the blind person will definitely be more competent. Such knowledge about people who are blind and, by extension, other socially marginalized people, can make us appreciate them and celebrate their unique abilities as they really are, rather than discriminate against, pity, or patronize them for some incompetence that does not exist except as a figment of our traditional, prejudiced imaginations.

[2025 수특영어: 3강 – 04]

When you think, you are using your imagination to create an image or picture in your mind of an event rather than the real thing. If you are driving home from a football match, reviewing the game in your mind, you are merely imagining what the game was like. The game is no longer real; it's now only in your mind, in your memory. It was real once, but not any longer. Similarly, if you are thinking about how bad your marriage is, you are considering it in your mind. It's all in your imagination. You are literally 'making up' your relationship. The thoughts you are having about your relationship are just thoughts. This is why the old saying, 'Things aren't as bad as they seem' is almost always true. The reason things 'seem so bad' is because your mind is able to recreate past events, and preview upcoming events, almost as though they were happening right in front of you, at that moment ― even though they're not. To make matters worse, your mind can add additional drama to any event, thereby making that event seem even worse than it really is, or was, or will be.

[2025 수특영어: 4강 – Gateway]

Values alone do not create and build culture. Living your values only some of the time does not contribute to the creation and maintenance of culture. Changing values into behaviors is only half the battle. Certainly, this is a step in the right direction, but those behaviors must then be shared and distributed widely throughout the organization, along with a clear and concise description of what is expected. It is not enough to simply talk about it. It is critical to have a visual representation of the specific behaviors that leaders and all people managers can use to coach their people. Just like a sports team has a playbook with specific plays designed to help them perform well and win, your company should have a playbook with the key shifts needed to transform your culture into action and turn your values into winning behaviors.

[2025 수특영어: 4강 – 01]

Most people don't equate silence with appreciation. People whose work is always good still need to hear it from you occasionally. Let them know you've noticed they are meeting their goals. Acknowledgement and appreciation create a supportive work environment and keep motivation alive. Make your appreciation specific and positive by noting what was done well and why it matters. This makes people feel good and it also ensures that the behaviour you identify is repeated. So, don't just say, "That was great!" Say, "That was great because ..." Both teams and individuals need positive, specific information about their accomplishments. Use your imagination: post graphs showing what the team has achieved; mark the achievement of major milestones or goals by bringing in sandwiches for lunch for everyone to share or putting up balloons; send thank you notes. When you ignore success, people think it doesn't matter and stop trying.

[2025 수특영어: 4강 – 02]

The quality of news is difficult to measure because there are no agreed-upon standards that satisfy everyone's definition of high quality. The term quality generally refers to any attribute, service, or performance that is highly valued within a group or a community. Defining quality is thus context-dependent, field-specific, and subject to individual preferences and tastes. It is important to note, however, that compared to other cultural products such as music and paintings, journalistic content is unique because it has a strong civic and democratic component. The idea of the press as the "fourth estate" stems from the expectation that high-quality journalism promotes democratic ideals by playing the role of a watchdog, providing a public forum, and serving as a reliable information provider. Therefore, when discussing news quality, normative aspects cannot be overemphasized.

[2025 수특영어: 4강 – 03]

One thing that managers have to keep in mind is that they should mend fences after any fight. Opponents are not necessarily enemies. An opponent disagrees with you on the issue, of course, but enemies are ones with whom you also have a negative relationship. That makes it personal. You can often work with opponents and strategize toward mutually successful outcomes, but enemies are far more difficult and consequently far more dangerous. Try to keep opponents from becoming enemies, and work to turn enemies into mere opponents. Find points of agreement, and find ways you can legitimately support those who were your opponents. The subject of the fight will eventually recede, but you still need the relationships.

[2025 수특영어: 4강 – 04]

Political decisions and management decisions about how much of any given species can be harvested are often based on the amount of money there is to be made. Profit leads to economic growth, which is the goal of many politicians and business leaders. But the problem with seeking continuous economic growth is that our economy is not separate from our environment. Everything in our economy comes from our environment. We extract resources from the world around us, consume them as products we eat or use, and then dump the waste back into the Earth. Our Earth is a finite ecosystem, which means there is only so much that we can take from the natural world to feed our economy, and only so much waste that the Earth can absorb, before natural processes stop functioning properly. The constant effort to extract more and more resources is actually an ecological impossibility over the long term. Our survival depends on learning to live within the limits of ecosystems.

[2025 수특영어: 5강 – Gateway]

How you focus your attention plays a critical role in how you deal with stress. Scattered attention harms your ability to let go of stress, because even though your attention is scattered, it is narrowly focused, for you are able to fixate only on the stressful parts of your experience. When your attentional spotlight is widened, you can more easily let go of stress. You can put in perspective many more aspects of any situation and not get locked into one part that ties you down to superficial and anxiety-provoking levels of attention. A narrow focus heightens the stress level of each experience, but a widened focus turns down the stress level because you're better able to put each situation into a broader perspective. One anxiety-provoking detail is less important than the bigger picture. It's like transforming yourself into a nonstick frying pan. You can still fry an egg, but the egg won't stick to the pan.

[2025 수특영어: 5강 – 01]

There are no black-and-white issues in life. No categorical answers. Everything is a subject for endless debate and compromise. This is one of the core principles of our current society. Because that core principle is wrong, the society ends up causing a lot of problems when it comes to sustainability. There are some issues that are black and white. There are indeed planetary and societal boundaries that must not be crossed. For instance, we think our societies can be a little bit more or a little bit less sustainable. But in the long run you cannot be a little bit sustainable ― either you are sustainable or you are unsustainable. It is like walking on thin ice ― either it carries your weight, or it does not. Either you make it to the shore, or you fall into the deep, dark, cold waters. And if that should happen to us, there will not be any nearby planet coming to our rescue. We are completely on our own.

[2025 수특영어: 5강 – 02]

The modern corporation as a child of laissez-faire economics and of the market society is based on a creed whose greatest weakness is the inability to see the need for status and function of the individual in society. In the philosophy of the market society there is no other social criterion than economic reward. Henry Maine's famous epigram that the course of modern history has been from status to contract neatly summarizes the belief of the nineteenth century, that social status and function should be exclusively the result of economic advancement. This emphasis was the result of a rebellion against a concept of society which defined human position exclusively in terms of politically determined status, and which thus denied equality of opportunity. But the rebellion went too far. In order to establish justice it denied meaning and fulfillment to those who cannot advance ― that is, to the majority ― instead of realizing that the good society must give both justice and status.

[2025 수특영어: 5강 – 03]

The notion of a "circular economy" ― in which materials circulate continuously, being used and reused time and time again ― is an appealing vision. However, it is crucial to highlight just how far we are from that goal at present. Although most textiles are entirely recyclable, 73 percent of waste clothing was incinerated or went to landfills globally in 2015. Just 12 percent was recycled into low-value textile applications such as mattress stuffing and less than 1 percent was recycled back into clothing. Some would question how realistic the idea of "closing the loop" can be; the complexity of the fashion system means that there are multiple opportunities for materials to "leak" from the reuse cycle. Furthermore, it must be noted that fiber recycling is not without its own environmental footprint. Even the reuse of secondhand clothing has implications in terms of resource use and waste, particularly if items are transported over long distances, dry cleaned, and repackaged.

[2025 수특영어: 5강 – 04]

When anticipating the effects of time, we should mentally forecast what they are likely to be; we should not practically stop them from happening, by demanding the immediate performance of promises which time alone can fulfill. The man who makes his demand will find out that there is no worse or stricter usurer than Time; and that, if you compel Time to give money in advance, you will have to pay a rate of interest much higher than any usurer would require. It is possible, for instance, to make a tree burst forth into leaf, blossom, or even bear fruit within a few days, by the application of unslaked lime and artificial heat; but after that the tree will wither away. So a young man may abuse his strength ― it may be only for a few weeks ― by trying to do at nineteen what he could easily manage at thirty, and Time may give him the loan for which he asks; but the interest he will have to pay comes out of the strength of his later years; indeed, it is part of his very life itself.

[2025 수특영어: 6강 – Gateway]

Managers of natural resources typically face market incentives that provide financial rewards for exploitation. For example, owners of forest lands have a market incentive to cut down trees rather than manage the forest for carbon capture, wildlife habitat, flood protection, and other ecosystem services. These services provide the owner with no financial benefits, and thus are unlikely to influence management decisions. But the economic benefits provided by these services, based on their non-market values, may exceed the economic value of the timber. For example, a United Nations initiative has estimated that the economic benefits of ecosystem services provided by tropical forests, including climate regulation, water purification, and erosion prevention, are over three times greater per hectare than the market benefits. Thus cutting down the trees is economically inefficient, and markets are not sending the correct "signal" to favor ecosystem services over extractive uses.

[2025 수특영어: 6강 – 01]

There are disturbing changes underway in today's school systems. Funding is frequently tied to scores achieved on standardized tests, which primarily evaluate rote memory. Teaching "to" tests like these inevitably focuses resources and curriculum on the lower-scoring students. The pressure to bring up test scores for these struggling students limits time for the kinds of individualized learning that challenges all students to reach their highest potential, and teachers have less opportunity to encourage creative thinking and incorporate hands-on activities. When education is not enriched by exploration, discovery, problem solving, and creative thinking, students are not truly engaged in their own learning. Because teachers are required to emphasize uninspiring workbooks and drills, more and more students are developing negative feelings about mathematics, science, history, grammar, and writing. Opportunities to authentically learn and retain knowledge are being replaced by instruction that teaches "to the tests."

[2025 수특영어: 6강 – 02]

For many years, it was indeed widely believed that the adult brain was essentially 'set', with all the neurons and major connections we'd need. Sure, we learn new things and update our understanding of things all the time, meaning new connections are regularly being formed and turned over in networks governing learning and memory. But in terms of overall physical structure and major connections, the stuff that makes us 'what we are', the adult brain was long thought to be 'done'. However, in recent years there's been a steady stream of evidence revealing that the adult brain can change and adapt, even create new neurons, and experiences can still reshape the brain, even as we head into our twilight years. Consider the taxi driver study, where constant driving and navigation of chaotic London streets leads to increased hippocampus size, revealing the adult brain structure is somewhat malleable.

[2025 수특영어: 6강 – 03]

Often ideological principles crystallize in laws, rules, and institutions that threaten to block deals. Nationalism requires that all resources belong to the state and that no one else may own them. Islamic fundamentalism prohibits interest payments on loans. Egyptian socialism demands that workers participate both in the management and the profits of an enterprise. Each of these principles can be an obstacle to deal making in particular cases. Yet, with some creativity, it is possible to structure a deal in such a way that the ideological principle is respected but business goes forward. For example, worker participation in management need not mean a seat on the company's board of directors, but simply an advisory committee that meets regularly with an officer of the company. And a petroleum development contract could be written in such a way that the ownership of oil is transferred not when the oil is in the ground but at the point that it leaves the flange of the well.

[2025 수특영어: 6강 – 04]

The unquestioned assumption that any and all scientific knowledge ― and associated technology ― contributes to sustainability derives from faith in the importance of objective knowledge for solving global problems. Scientists obtain power and become the priests of our era to the extent that they provide a special form of knowledge that can be used to do such wonderful things. And we often consider that the final test of scientific knowledge: we can do things with its results, such as applying it to reverse the decline of an endangered species. Regardless, we know now that the linear view of the relation between science and social outcomes is flawed. Science may allow us to do things, but we can assess its contribution to sustainability only by incorporating broader contextual and socio-ecological questions. We typically think of sustainability as doing something out there in the world, when in fact we may need to first reassess the way we are setting the problem.

[2025 수특영어: 7강 – Gateway]

The concept of overtourism rests on a particular assumption about people and places common in tourism studies and the social sciences in general. Both are seen as clearly defined and demarcated. People are framed as bounded social actors either playing the role of hosts or guests. Places, in a similar way, are treated as stable containers with clear boundaries. Hence, places can be full of tourists and thus suffer from overtourism. But what does it mean for a place to be full of people? Indeed, there are examples of particular attractions that have limited capacity and where there is actually no room for more visitors. This is not least the case with some man-made constructions such as the Eiffel Tower. However, with places such as cities, regions or even whole countries being promoted as destinations and described as victims of overtourism, things become more complex. What is excessive or out of proportion is highly relative and might be more related to other aspects than physical capacity, such as natural degradation and economic leakages (not to mention politics and local power dynamics).

[2025 수특영어: 7강 – 01]

According to research from the University of Arizona's Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology, the average household ends up wasting an average of 14 percent of its grocery spending by throwing away unused or spoiled food. Even worse, 15 percent of that waste includes products that were never opened and were still within their expiration date! (This statistic really makes me cringe ― why not just set dollar bills on fire while we're at it?) The study also found that a family of four ends up throwing away an average of $590 of perishable groceries per year, such as meat, produce, dairy, and grain products. You can save an average of $50 per month by avoiding overbuying perishable foods. Check your supplies before shopping and estimate the exact amount you'll need to buy for the next week. This is also a good time to throw away outdated leftovers, make sure perishable items are in view, and use up good leftovers for that day's meals.

[2025 수특영어: 7강 – 02]

Throughout history, human imagination has been a double-edged sword. On one hand, it pushes new discoveries, but for every newly established scientific fact, there are often multiple incorrect hypotheses, which must be corrected along the way or risk becoming myths. Thomas Edison is credited with saying: "I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work," implying that error is part of invention. Unfortunately, if errors or partial truths get circulated long enough, they can lead to a false echo chamber of repetition and suggest "truth" where none exists. For example, even though the humors have been discredited for centuries, some still believe in the myth that blood types (blood being one of the four humors) can determine personalities. A quick internet search finds more than five million websites related to this topic, meaning this myth is slow to die.

[2025 수특영어: 7강 – 03]

Ideally, when we make art or engage in any creative activity by ourselves, we recognize its value and make time and space for it in our lives. The boom in coloring books and coloring pages in the past few years is one such example. It takes away the challenging part of visual art-making and skills and provides us with a level of challenge that is relatively easy and manageable. Our studies with cancer patients and caregivers showed that solitary activities like coloring helped in meditative and reflective ways by taking us to a space of distraction away from everyday concerns. Such activities do not necessarily help us resolve our problems; rather, they provide a time to rest and a way to focus our attention elsewhere until such time as we can address them directly. When we make art by ourselves, it can help us self-regulate; feel a sense of mastery, control, and agency over our lives; and engage in reflective, validating, contemplative, or meditative practices.

[2025 수특영어: 7강 – 04]

When Galileo rolled the balls down the inclined plane, he didn't merely look and see what happened. He very carefully measured the distance traveled and the time it took to travel that distance. From these measurements, he calculated the speed of travel. What he came up with was a mathematical equation relating numerical quantities. We can imagine that when he observed the moons of Jupiter, he didn't merely see some spots at various different places from night to night: he kept track of where the spots were, compared their positions from night to night, and perhaps did some calculations intended to compute what path they were traveling, to find out that their change in apparent position was consistent with their being bodies moving around Jupiter. Similarly, in my hypothetical bird experiment I imagined myself as a budding junior scientist weighing the stuff I put into the cage and calculating percentages by weight of what was eaten. It's obvious: numbers are important to science. Scientists measure and calculate; they don't just observe.

[2025 수특영어: 8강 – Gateway]

The above graph shows the percentages of the respondents in five countries who sometimes or often actively avoided news in 2017, 2019, and 2022. For each of the three years, Ireland showed the highest percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news, among the countries in the graph. In Germany, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news was less than 30% in each of the three years. In Denmark, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news in 2019 was higher than that in 2017 but lower than that in 2022. In Finland, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news in 2019 was lower than that in 2017, which was also true for Japan. In Japan, the percentage of the respondents who sometimes or often actively avoided news did not exceed 15% in each of the three years.

[2025 수특영어: 8강 – 01]

The above graph shows the total annual food waste at the retail and household stages, per capita, for nine selected countries. Among the countries, Saudi Arabia had the largest amount of total annual food waste per capita, immediately followed by Australia and Denmark. Austria was the only country whose total annual food waste per capita was less than 50 kg. In terms of the annual food waste per capita at the retail stage, Denmark topped the list with more than 25 kg. Germany had almost the same amount of total annual food waste per capita as the UK. At the household stage, the US wasted almost as much as New Zealand; additionally, the former wasted even less than the latter at the retail stage.

[2025 수특영어: 8강 – 02]

The above graph shows the latest 5-year average number of skier visits per season in the world's skiing hotspots, as of April 2022. The United States had the largest average number of skier visits per season among the ten countries, with more than 50 million domestic skiers. Austria had the second largest average number of skier visits per season among the ten countries and recorded the most foreign skier visits. The average number of domestic skier visits per season in Japan was more than that of domestic and foreign skier visits per season combined in Italy. The average number of skier visits per season in Italy was more than that in Switzerland, with a difference of three hundred thousand visits. The two countries with less than ten million average skier visits per season were Sweden and Germany, and the latter had more skiers than the former.

[2025 수특영어: 8강 – 03]

The graphs above show the survey results on how often U.S. students aged 9 and 13 read for fun from 1984 to 2020. In 1984, more than half of 9-year-olds said they read for fun almost every day, but in 2020 the proportion dropped to the same level as that of 9-year-olds who said they read for fun less frequently. In 2020, the proportion of 9-year-olds who said they never or hardly ever read for fun was at its highest level in the survey period. Among the 13-year-olds surveyed in 2020, 17% said they read for fun almost every day, which was less than half the percentage who said this in 1984. In 2020, about three-in-ten students in this age group said they never or hardly ever read for fun, an increase of 21 percentage points compared to 1984. In 2020, the share of 13-year-olds who reported reading for fun less frequently was 12 percentage points lower than that of their 9-year-old counterparts.

[2025 수특영어: 8강 – 04]

The above graph shows the devices that U.S. adults used for their online shopping in 2022, including the distribution for each device by age and income. In 2022, smartphones were the most preferred method of online shopping for most Americans, with around three-quarters saying they used a smartphone for online purchases. In comparison, 69% reported using a desktop or laptop computer for online shopping, while only 28% said they used a tablet. The use of smartphones for online shopping was more common among adults under 50 years old, especially with 92% of those aged 30 to 49 reporting that they shopped online using a smartphone. Meanwhile, when it comes to age differences in online shopping using tablets, those aged 18 to 29 were more likely to use a tablet for online shopping than those aged 30 and older. Device types for online shopping also varied by household income, with those with higher incomes more likely to use each device for online purchases.

[2025 수특영어: 9강 – Gateway]

Charles H. Townes, one of the most influential American physicists, was born in South Carolina. In his childhood, he grew up on a farm, studying the stars in the sky. He earned his doctoral degree from the California Institute of Technology in 1939, and then he took a job at Bell Labs in New York City. After World War II, he became an associate professor of physics at Columbia University. In 1958, Townes and his co-researcher proposed the concept of the laser. Laser technology won quick acceptance in industry and research. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964. He was also involved in Project Apollo, the moon landing project. His contribution is priceless because the Internet and all digital media would be unimaginable without the laser.

[2025 수특영어: 9강 – 01]

Gladys West is an American mathematician. She was born in rural Virginia in 1930. She grew up on her family's small farm and dreamed of getting a good education. She worked hard and received a scholarship to Virginia State College (now Virginia State University), a historically black university. In 1956 she was hired as a mathematician at the naval base in Dahlgren, Virginia. She was the second black woman to be hired at the base and was one of only four black employees. There, West made significant contributions to the applied mathematics that deals with the measurement of the Earth's size, shape, and gravitational field. West and her team created a model that allows the GPS system to make accurate calculations of any location on Earth. West retired from the base in 1998 at the age of 68 but continued her education. She later completed a PhD in Public Administration at Virginia Tech by distance-learning.

[2025 수특영어: 9강 – 02]

Fado means "fate" in Portuguese, but is also the name of a form of music originating in Lisbon. It is usually performed by one singer, accompanied by dual guitarras (mandolin-shaped 12-string guitars) and a viola (Spanish guitar). Fado lyrics frequently focus on the hard realities of daily life, or the trials of love. Fado is also linked with the notion of saudade, which is a longing for something impossible to attain. Fadistas, as fado singers are known, often wear a black shawl of mourning, although songs can also be upbeat. Since the 19th century, fado has been performed in bars and clubs in working-class districts of Lisbon. It flourished during the Salazar years, before falling out of favour after the 1974 Revolution. In recent times, the genre has been revived and a new generation of musicians and singers can be heard in casas de fado, around Lisbon.

[2025 수특영어: 9강 – 03]

The Mayan ball game was a very important part of Mayan culture. The ball games were played either by 2 players or by 2 teams of players. The object of the game was to put a ball through one of the stone rings while stopping the other team from putting the ball through the other stone ring. The ball was a little larger than a basketball and was made of solid rubber. For protection, players wore hard leather gloves, elbow and knee pads, masks, and belts that were made of wood or stone. Although not all historians agree, some think the rules did not allow players to touch the ball with their hands or feet. They used only their elbows, hips, and knees to hit the ball, and had to keep the ball from touching the ground. Spectators from all classes liked to watch and bet on the games.

[2025 수특영어: 9강 – 04]

Lysippus was the most prominent, prolific and longest-lived of the great 4th-century BC sculptors. He was active, reportedly making 1,500 works, all of them in bronze. Considered the most accomplished artist of his age, Lysippus suitably became Alexander the Great's favourite - in fact, court-sculptor. The world-conqueror allowed almost no one else to sculpt him. Lysippus went on to make portrait busts of many of Alexander's warring successors, such as Cassander and Seleucus I. A native of Sicyon in the Peloponnese, Lysippus ran a workshop of almost industrial size that was continued after his death by his sons. Ancient writers such as Pliny relate that Lysippus invented an entirely new canon, or mathematically calculated ideal beauty, almost displacing that of Polyclitus.

[2025 수특영어: 11강 – Gateway]

A number of studies provide substantial evidence of an innate human disposition to respond differentially to social stimuli. From birth, infants will orient preferentially towards the human face and voice, seeming to know that such stimuli are particularly meaningful for them. Moreover, they register this connection actively, imitating a variety of facial gestures that are presented to them ― tongue protrusions, lip tightenings, mouth openings. They will even try to match gestures with which they have some difficulty, experimenting with their own faces until they succeed. When they do succeed, they show pleasure by a brightening of their eyes; when they fail, they show distress. In other words, they not only have an innate capacity for matching their own kinaesthetically experienced bodily movements with those of others that are visually perceived; they have an innate drive to do so. That is, they seem to have an innate drive to imitate others whom they judge to be 'like me'.

[2025 수특영어: 11강 – 01]

A good way to make human-machine interaction more natural would be to develop a better metaphor. A computer metaphor is a familiar object or activity that your computer imitates with its commands, display arrangements, and behavior. The two main metaphors we have today are the desktop and the browser. In the desktop metaphor, the display screen mimics a typical desk; information is kept inside folders, which can be opened, closed, and slipped into other folders. With Web browsing, the metaphor is downtown window shopping; you gaze at various "storefronts," see one you like, and (click) you enter. Inside, there are more options to browse, you choose another, and again you enter. Like a linguistic metaphor, the power of a good computer metaphor is that it makes a new system you don't know behave like an old "system" with which you are familiar. This lets you use the new system and get useful results out of it easily, since you don't have to struggle learning new concepts and commands.

[2025 수특영어: 11강 – 02]

Human activity on the landscape can significantly contribute to soil erosion. In a natural state, vegetation serves as natural protection against erosion because the network of roots helps hold the soil in place against various erosive forces, such as wind and water. Scientists estimate that, in the United States, 30% of erosion is due to natural forces and 70% is due to human impact. Oftentimes, when people use the land for farming, the protective covering of natural vegetation is destroyed, and the erosion process speeds up. In fact, studies have shown that artificially created erosion played a big part in the downfall of many early civilizations. Poor land management practices degraded the soil until it was no longer productive enough to support the population living in the area. Early civilizations that recognized the disastrous effects of erosion used devices such as terracing the land to keep from plowing, planting, and irrigating on hillside slopes where water could wash the fertile soil away.

[2025 수특영어: 11강 – 03]

It used to be thought that Neanderthals were dim-witted, slouching cavemen completely covered with hair. But this reputation is based on just one fossil, which modern scholarship has proved happens to be that of an old, diseased, and injured man. He was approximately forty or forty-five years old when he died ― very old for people at that time. Healthy Neanderthals probably walked erect. Objects found at Neanderthal sites show that Neanderthals could make complex tools. The characteristics of their skulls suggest that they probably could speak, although perhaps not with the full range of sounds that modern humans make. Sites also show that they did not necessarily live in caves, but, if they did, they likely altered the caves to make them more livable. Sometimes they built shelters rather than settled in caves. In 1996, scientists digging at a Neanderthal site in Slovenia announced they had found what appeared to be a musical instrument, a flute made from a bear bone.

[2025 수특영어: 11강 – 04]

Discrimination occurs on two levels: institutional and individual. On the institutional level, discriminatory practices are embedded in the social structures of a society, whereas on the individual level, discrimination takes place during direct interactions among individuals or groups. Unlike individual discrimination, which tends to be overt, intentional, and direct, institutional discrimination is often covert and unintentional, and this invisibility makes it much harder to detect. Standardized testing in schools, for example, may exclude certain historically marginalized groups from succeeding in academic settings. Although the government may not have intentionally established testing standards that are culturally or class biased, in practice these standards tend to have a disproportionate negative effect on ethnic minority students. Furthermore, institutional discrimination often has a generational or cyclical impact on certain ethnic minority groups and therefore its consequences are as severe, if not more so, than for those suffering individual discrimination.

[2025 수특영어: 12강 – Gateway]

Bazaar economies feature an apparently flexible price-setting mechanism that sits atop more enduring ties of shared culture. Both the buyer and seller are aware of each other's restrictions. In Delhi's bazaars, buyers and sellers can assess to a large extent the financial constraints that other actors have in their everyday life. Each actor belonging to a specific economic class understands what the other sees as a necessity and a luxury. In the case of electronic products like video games, they are not a necessity at the same level as other household purchases such as food items. So, the seller in Delhi's bazaars is careful not to directly ask for very high prices for video games because at no point will the buyer see possession of them as an absolute necessity. Access to this type of knowledge establishes a price consensus by relating to each other's preferences and limitations of belonging to a similar cultural and economic universe.

[2025 수특영어: 12강 – 01]

One should perhaps ask why even very simple animals would prefer familiar stimuli or familiar other animals. A tendency to grow fond of the familiar would help stamp in the preference for a stable environment (so animals might learn to like their homes). It would certainly promote stable social bonds. Imagine, for example, that nature programmed animals in the opposite way, so that familiarity led to contempt or some other form of disliking. How would families stay together? How would friendships, alliances, or other partnerships survive? If you always preferred a stranger to someone you knew, social life would be in constant turmoil and turnover. In contrast, if you automatically grew to like the people you saw regularly, you would soon prefer them over strangers, and groups would form and stabilize easily. Given the advantages of stable groups (e.g., people know each other, know how to work together, know how to make decisions together, know how to adjust to each other), it is not surprising that nature favored animals that grew to like (rather than dislike) each other on the basis of familiarity.

[2025 수특영어: 12강 – 02]

Social psychologist Irving Janis recognized the problems of groupthink, but felt that it could be avoided. It is most likely to develop when team spirit becomes more important than the opinions of individual members. It's also likely to form if the group is made up of like-minded people to begin with, and if they are faced with a difficult decision. To prevent groupthink, Janis proposed a system of organization that encourages independent thinking. The leader of the group should appear to be impartial, so that members do not feel any pressure to obey. Furthermore, he or she should get the group to examine all the options, and to consult people outside the group, too. Disagreement, Janis argued, is actually a good thing, and he suggested that members should be asked to play "devil's advocate" ― introducing an alternative point of view in order to provoke discussion. In addition to ensuring that the group comes to more rational and fair decisions, allowing members to retain their individuality creates a healthier team spirit than the state of groupthink, which results from conformity and obedience.

[2025 수특영어: 12강 – 03]

The alternative world provided by cyberspace is essentially an ideal private world in which each person controls the information that is revealed. In this world, the full identity of the person is not revealed, and the two people are physically remote from each other. Hence, it is much easier to keep private whatever areas the participants so wish. These circumstances do not lead the participants to remain completely mysterious ― on the contrary, in many cases it leads the participants to reveal much more about themselves than they would usually do. When we can keep private that which seems to threaten us, we can be more open concerning other matters. The greater degree of openness generates a greater degree of emotional closeness as well. Accordingly, in online relationships we can find both greater privacy and greater closeness and openness ― this considerably reduces the common conflict between openness and privacy.

[2025 수특영어: 12강 – 04]

People often have different definitions of education, as the nature of education is somewhat fluid. Nearly 600 years ago the printing press changed the way much of education occurred. Students began reading information, coupled with the information a teacher would share. To ensure that the student had retained the information, a test or paper was often required to make an assessment of that retention. This downloading of information is known as the banking model, and what the banking model does is it reduces the student from being a critical and independent thinker to being a receptacle for facts. The process of the banking model raises the power and control of the teacher while failing to recognize that students are more than simply unthinking blank slates. The concept, then, is placed squarely into the minds of students, who are taught that they are subservient and beholden to the keeper of information. As a result, students have little control over their own thinking and their own education.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – Gateway]

A musical score within any film can add an additional layer to the film text, which goes beyond simply imitating the action viewed. In films that tell of futuristic worlds, composers, much like sound designers, have added freedom to create a world that is unknown and new to the viewer. However, unlike sound designers, composers often shy away from creating unique pieces that reflect these new worlds and often present musical scores that possess familiar structures and cadences. While it is possible that this may interfere with creativity and a sense of space and time, it in fact aids in viewer access to the film. Through recognizable scores, visions of the future or a galaxy far, far away can be placed within a recognizable context. Such familiarity allows the viewer to be placed in a comfortable space so that the film may then lead the viewer to what is an unfamiliar, but acceptable vision of a world different from their own.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 01]

In his 1967 book, Coopersmith first noticed a positive relationship between self-esteem levels in mothers and their children. But Bednar, Wells, and Peterson made considerable use of this factor by pointing out that parents actually show their children the route to self-esteem by how they handle their own challenges, conflicts, and issues. The impact of parents' behavior upon the child's self-esteem is undeniable; given the immaturity of children, however, parents' expression of their own resolution of the self-esteem question is far more influential than what they teach verbally. Parents who face life's challenges honestly and openly and who attempt to cope with difficulties instead of avoiding them thereby expose their children early to a pro-self-esteem problem-solving strategy. Those who avoid dealing with difficulties reveal a negative route for handling the challenges and problems of life. Either way, it is important to remember that modeling helps set the stage for healthy self-esteem or problems with it.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 02]

Several different strategies will be used to get us to buy. For new products, marketers want to motivate us to try their product, so the job is to advertise it as much as possible to get the word out. With an established product, marketers will either want us to try it again (reminder advertising), or they may try to get us to consume more of their product. A good way to do this is to provide new uses. One brand of baking soda is a good example. After women entered the job market en masse in the 1960s and there was less time for baking, the company promoted using the product to keep the freezer and refrigerator smelling clean ― and to change the box every three months. Or when women started earning significant salaries and getting married later, the diamond industry started selling diamond rings to women, claiming that the left hand is for "we" and the right is for "me."

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 03]

When kids feel forced to do things ― or are too tightly regulated in the way they do things ― they're likely to become less interested in what they're doing and less likely to stick with something challenging. In an intriguing experiment, parents were invited to sit on the floor next to their very young children ― not even two years old ― who were playing with toys. Some of the parents immediately took over the task or barked out instructions ("Put the block in. No, not there. There!"). Others were content to let their kids explore, providing encouragement and offering help only when it was needed. Later, the babies were given something else to play with, this time without their parents present. It turned out that, once they were on their own, those who had controlling parents were apt to give up more easily rather than trying to figure out how the new toy worked.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 04]

It is critical, as we recreate mutual provision in a sustainable form, that we keep track of the line between needs and wants. While a permanent place for people on Earth requires that our needs be met, people gathering about themselves quantities of unnecessary goods, while others lack food and shelter, cannot be part of a durable order. A society that oppresses other people to bloat itself will not stop at undermining foreign nations. The ethic will express itself with exploitation at home. While ingenuity and hard work will still lead to improved circumstances as communities increase their effective use of local resources, when one's achieved wealth is at the expense of others, much goodwill, effort and resources will be lost to resentment, rebellion and repression. A huge bonus is available for everyone when the focus of development is securing and improving the quality of life for all.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 05]

As Marshall McLuhan suggested so presciently in 1964, "the medium is the message," which means that, beyond the content that is conveyed, the medium itself has an impact by its very nature and unique characteristics. For example, the use of social media means that we have less need to interact with others directly. This distancing of communication has real implications for children's development. If learning to communicate with others is a skill that develops with practice, children's constant use of social media reduces the experiences they have with which to learn social skills. McLuhan asserts that we are so focused on the content of the technology that we neglect to notice the influence of the technology itself on people. This observation is certainly true today: we focus on what the technology provides (e.g., video, text messages, social media), but we fail to consider how the very act of using these advances shapes us.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 06]

Cities continue to reinvent themselves. In the last few decades, many have worked to reduce pollution and create appealing modern spaces by restricting polluting vehicles, encouraging energy-efficient buildings, and planting trees. In 2020, another impetus for change came in the form of COVID-19, which saw retail centres empty, businesses send workers home, and some question whether crowded cities were a safe environment. Yet cities have responded to changing circumstances in the past. Through the first kingdoms of Mesopotamia, global expansion, and the Industrial Revolution, they have evolved to remain at the heart of politics, economics, and culture. The history of the world is very much a history of great cities, and whatever future we build, these sites of trade, creativity, and transformation are likely to be at the heart of it.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 07]

Human cultures seem to be infinitely variable, but in fact that variability takes place within the boundaries produced by physical and mental capacities. Human languages, for example, are tremendously diverse, differing in sound, grammar, and semantics. But all are dependent upon what appears to be a uniquely human capacity and predisposition for learning languages. While the range of sounds used in human languages extends from clicks and pops to guttural stops, the distinctive speech sounds that are meaningful in all the languages of the world are but a fraction of the sounds it is possible for humans to make. Another way that we might observe the intricate relationship between the culturally specific and the universal is in the way an American boy and his Mixtec friends might react emotionally, even instinctively, to bee larvae and onion soup: whether they feel delight or disgust is determined by the way they learn to perceive food, but delight and disgust seem to be basic and universal human reactions to food.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 08]

Think about what happens in a standard scientific experiment to find out how a certain laundry detergent bleaches. In normal use, there are several factors that may cause the detergent to act in a certain way. These will include its active ingredients, the type and temperature of the water in which the ingredients are mixed, the materials being cleaned and the machinery ― if any ― used to do the laundry. Any experiment that could hope to discover what caused bleaching would have to be devised in such a way as to ensure that the crucial factors were properly isolated from the other variables. So if, for example, the hypothesis is that it is the chlorine that does the bleaching, the experiment needs to show that if all the other factors remain the same, the presence or absence of the chlorine will determine whether the laundry detergent bleaches.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 09]

Al's effects on human knowledge are paradoxical. On the one hand, AI intermediaries can navigate and analyze bodies of data vaster than the unaided human mind could have previously imagined. On the other, this power ― the ability to engage with vast bodies of data ― may also accentuate forms of manipulation and error. AI is capable of exploiting human passions more effectively than traditional propaganda. Having tailored itself to individual preferences and instincts, AI draws out responses its creator or user desires. Similarly, the deployment of AI intermediaries may also amplify inherent biases, even if these AI intermediaries are technically under human control. The dynamics of market competition prompt social media platforms and search engines to present information that users find most compelling. As a result, information that users are believed to want to see is prioritized, distorting a representative picture of reality. Much as technology accelerated the speed of information production and dissemination in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in this era, information is being altered by the mapping of AI onto dissemination processes.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 10]

It is not a coincidence that children turn out like their parents. From the moment you come into the world, your mother and your father are your role models. As little girls grow, they try on their mother's clothes, put on her make-up, and pretend to be her. When little boys come of age, they play with their father's tools and try to build or fix something for real. The truth of the matter is that children look up to their parents as mentors. They praise them and hold them in high regard. The greatest compliment they can give their parents as they grow is to turn out just like them. If you stop to take a personal inventory, you may find that you are much like those that you emulate. A parent, a coach, a teacher, or a leader all leave their mark on the final package with your name on it. When you look in the mirror, you may see one or all of them in the reflection.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 11]

We are all familiar with battles between reason and desire. Socrates asks whether there are thirsty people who don't wish to drink. Indeed there are. (A sign on a faucet that reads "nonpotable water, do not drink" won't take away a person's thirst, but she won't want to drink there.) Yet there is something paradoxical about this: the word "thirsty" means "wishes to drink." So we are imagining people who wish to drink and do not wish to drink. How could that be? "It is obvious that the same thing will not be willing to do or undergo opposites in the same part of itself, in relation to the same thing, at the same time. So, if we ever find this happening in the soul, we'll know that we aren't dealing with one thing but many." In other words, since no one thing can both wish to drink and not wish to drink (in the same way at the same time), no one thing can have both of those two characteristics; we thus manage this by being more than one: one part of the soul wishes to drink, and another does not wish to drink.

[2025 수특영어: 13강 – 12]

Media executives understand that they must think of their audiences as consumers who buy their products or whom they sell to advertisers. The complaining individual might be successful in getting the content changed or even removed if he or she convinces the media executives that they might otherwise lose a substantial portion of their target market. But an individual's concern will garner little attention if it is clear that the person does not belong in the target audience. The editors from Cosmopolitan magazine, which aims at 20-something single women, for example, are not likely to follow the advice of an elderly-sounding woman from rural Kansas who phones to protest what she feels are demeaning portrayals of women on covers of the magazine that she sees in the supermarket. Yet the magazine staff might well act favorably if a Cosmopolitan subscriber writes with a suggestion for a new column that would attract more of the upscale single women they want as readers.

[2025 수특영어: 14강 – Gateway]

Speaking fast is a high-risk proposition. It's nearly impossible to maintain the ideal conditions to be persuasive, well-spoken, and effective when the mouth is traveling well over the speed limit. Although we'd like to think that our minds are sharp enough to always make good decisions with the greatest efficiency, they just aren't. In reality, the brain arrives at an intersection of four or five possible things to say and sits idling for a couple of seconds, considering the options. When the brain stops sending navigational instructions back to the mouth and the mouth is moving too fast to pause, that's when you get a verbal fender bender, otherwise known as filler. Um, ah, you know, and like are what your mouth does when it has nowhere to go.

[2025 수특영어: 14강 – 01]

Rejecting any academic training they had experienced, Monet and the other Impressionists believed that their art, with its objective methods of painting what they saw before them, was more sincere than any academic art. They all agreed that they aimed to capture their "sensations" or what they could see as they painted. These sensations included the flickering effects of light that our eyes capture as we regard things. In complete contrast to the Academie, the Impressionists painted ordinary, modern people in everyday and up-to-date settings, making no attempt to hide their painting techniques. They avoided symbols or any narrative content, preventing viewers from "reading" a picture, but making them experience their paintings as an isolated moment in time.

[2025 수특영어: 14강 – 02]

Plants assess when they need to be competitive and when it is more prudent to be collaborative. To make this kind of decision, they weigh the energy cost relative to the benefit for improved growth and persistence. For example, although a plant would generally attempt to grow taller than a closely situated neighbor for preferential access to sunlight, if the neighbor is already significantly taller and the race is likely to be lost, the plant will temper its competitive instinct. That is, plants compete only when competition is needed to improve their ability to support their own growth and reproduction and has some likelihood of success. Once competition yields the needed results, they cease competing and shift their energy to living. For plants, competition is about survival, not the thrill of victory.

[2025 수특영어: 14강 – 03]

Mechanisation speeded up vertical movement. Stairs and ramps were traditionally how you went up and down, so few buildings in frequent use exceeded five storeys. The Otis Company, founded in 1853 in New York, changed all that with the invention of the safety elevator (safe because it locked the car in place should the cables fail) that made taller buildings possible. Escalators came later bringing greater capacity to move more people over shorter vertical distance; they made their debut, and were a sensation, at the 1900 Paris Exposition. With elevators and escalators cities could now spread underground, with deep basements, subways and tunnels, and upwards, with high rise buildings, as well as outwards. The modern cityscape ― of which Manhattan is still the iconic exemplar ― was created.

[2025 수특영어: 14강 – 04]

If you wanted to be entertained in a theater before the nineteenth century, you could not avoid the fact that you were at some level participating in a dialog, a conversation, either with your fellow members of the audience, or with the actors. The idea of the audience sitting in the dark and watching the stage in silence is a new thing. Prior to the nineteenth century the audience were lit and often extremely vocal and active, even leaping on stage to fight with the cast. It was the actor David Garrick in the eighteenth century who pioneered the idea that an audience should shut up and listen. The passive and reverential silence in which today's actors can indulge themselves is a new phenomenon, as, of course, is the cinema, where our surrogates on the screen can unfold their stories unaware of our responses.

[2025 수특영어: 15강 – Gateway]

Norms emerge in groups as a result of people conforming to the behavior of others. Thus, the start of a norm occurs when one person acts in a particular manner in a particular situation because she thinks she ought to. Others may then conform to this behavior for a number of reasons. The person who performed the initial action may think that others ought to behave as she behaves in situations of this sort. Thus, she may prescribe the behavior to them by uttering the norm statement in a prescriptive manner. Alternately, she may communicate that conformity is desired in other ways, such as by gesturing. In addition, she may threaten to sanction them for not behaving as she wishes. This will cause some to conform to her wishes and act as she acts. But some others will not need to have the behavior prescribed to them. They will observe the regularity of behavior and decide on their own that they ought to conform. They may do so for either rational or moral reasons.

[2025 수특영어: 15강 – 01]

Globalization has often been studied as a macro phenomenon. However, as the globalization process obviously affects individuals' lives, a need for alternative concepts has emerged. Concepts such as cosmopolitanism and global citizenship have therefore frequently been used to capture how globalization is experienced "from below", with individuals as the object of analysis. Here, cosmopolitanism is interpreted as having many similarities to global citizenship. For instance, cultural sociologist John Tomlinson claims that being a cosmopolitan means that one has an active experience of "belonging to the wider world". As such, cosmopolitanism is closely connected to identity; a cosmopolitan obtains a reflexive awareness of the features that unite us as human beings. This requires the ability to question one's own assumptions and prejudices. Identity is in this context not essentialist or stable; rather, it is fragmented and constructed and reconstructed across the different practices and positions in which one participates.

[2025 수특영어: 15강 – 02]

On June 17, 1953, Mrs. Roosevelt traveled to Hiroshima, where she visited the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission, an American research group that studied the effects of the nuclear attacks on bomb survivors. Many people had been injured by the fires that the bomb had caused. After her official meetings, some girls were waiting to see her. The girls explained that they did not blame her for the atomic bomb; they only wanted to impress on her the need to ensure that these weapons were never used again on human beings, given their effects. Although she did not say so directly, the girls may have been among those whose faces were permanently disfigured by the attack. This must have been a powerful encounter because Mrs. Roosevelt called it a "tragic moment." It led her to urge Americans to do more to help. Though she maintained that they were not America's direct responsibility, "as a gesture of goodwill for the victims of this last war, such help would be invaluable."

[2025 수특영어: 15강 – 03]

Most philosophers accepted Plato's definition of knowledge as justified true belief until the 1960s, when Edmund Gettier showed that it didn't always provide a satisfactory explanation. He came up with several instances where we instinctively realize that someone doesn't really know something, even though that person's belief is both true and justified. For example, I have arranged to meet my friend Sue at her house, and when I arrive I see her through the window sitting in the kitchen. In fact, it is not Sue that I see, but her identical twin sister ― Sue is actually in another room. My belief that Sue is home is true, and I have good reason to believe it because I am sure I have seen her, but it is wrong to say that I knew she was at home ― I didn't know. Examples such as this became known as "Gettier problems," and have prompted philosophers to ask if, in addition to belief, truth, and justification, there is a fourth criterion for knowledge. Gettier had cast doubt not only on Plato's definition, but also on whether or not it is possible to define completely what knowledge is.

[2025 수특영어: 15강 – 04]

On one level, it is helpful for individuals to identify which kind of ethical system they have and which kind they admire. Immanuel Kant takes it one step further, adding an unusual rule for a deontologist. He believed that you can and should test your decisions for moral and ethical soundness and outlined a thought experiment he called the Categorical Imperative to help you do just that. When considering any course of action, ask yourself, "Would I want everyone else, if placed in my position, to do the same thing?" If the answer is yes, you're on the right path. If the answer is no, then don't do it yourself. For example, while you can easily imagine a situation in which it might be to your advantage to lie, you would not want everyone to lie, so you should not lie yourself.

[2025 수특영어: 15강 – 05]

Life-forms work to evolve survival strategies but without necessarily being aware of the process. Consciousness is not a necessary condition of life ― though it says much about the organism that happens to possess it. Most biological species have evolved techniques and mechanisms for survival without reflecting on the fact, and this is what has happened so far with computer life-forms. We can speculate on how computers might ponder on their own survival but this is essentially a matter for the future. At present we see a host of rudimentary survival mechanisms in computers: we may expect these to develop and new ones to emerge. It is inevitable, at the present stage of their development, that computer survival strategies owe virtually everything to human involvement in computer design. However, as machine autonomy develops there will be a progressive reduction in the extent of human influence on computer evolution. Computers will come to think about their own position in the world, and take steps to enhance their own security.

[2025 수특영어: 15강 – 06]

Since at least the late nineteenth century and the rise of industrial cities, the history of urbanism and urban planning has been a history of expertise ― political, administrative, and technocratic. Cities came to be seen as solutions to demands for wealth, health, safety, opportunity, and personal development, as society grew more economically, socially, and politically complex. Cities also came to be seen as posing new problems, often caused by their successes in meeting earlier social demands. Both fueled by and fueling that problem/solution framework, the Progressive political movement of the early twentieth century relied heavily on trained and trusted experts, especially economists and other social scientists. Those experts were often educated in newly formed occupational disciplines and professional schools. Degrees in hand, they were primed to lead both governments and businesses away from the era of laissez-faire and toward better outcomes for themselves and for workers and citizens. That meant safer food; safer water; better working conditions; safer and less expensive automobiles; expanded opportunities for education, leisure, and personal fulfillment; and so on.

[2025 수특영어: 16강 – Gateway]

Science is sometimes described as a winner-take-all contest, meaning that there are no rewards for being second or third. This is an extreme view of the nature of scientific contests. Even those who describe scientific contests in such a way note that it is a somewhat inaccurate description, given that replication and verification have social value and are common in science. It is also inaccurate to the extent that it suggests that only a handful of contests exist. Yes, some contests are seen as world class, such as identification of the Higgs particle or the development of high temperature superconductors. But many other contests have multiple parts, and the number of such contests may be increasing. By way of example, for many years it was thought that there would be "one" cure for cancer, but it is now realized that cancer takes multiple forms and that multiple approaches are needed to provide a cure. There won't be one winner ― there will be many.

[2025 수특영어: 16강 – 01]

As soon as a reporter is assigned to a specialized beat, he or she should read several basic books on that subject to become familiar in a general way with how the beat works. If a governmental area is involved ─ for example, a state legislature or a court system ─ a reporter should not go on a first assignment without knowing how that particular unit operates. Libraries contain such books, although it is better for reporters to buy their own copies for future reference. No medical reporter can work successfully without a good medical dictionary, for example. Nor should a business reporter be without a basic economics text. City directories and telephone books from all cities in a reporter's area of coverage are valuable tools, as are internal directories of the organizations he or she will encounter on the beat. Having such numbers ─ which are often impossible to obtain officially ― will enable a reporter to bypass obstacles and reach potential sources quickly.

[2025 수특영어: 16강 – 02]

Cultural and behavioral diversity can result from humans' innate ability to flexibly respond to their environments, to engage in social learning, and to make culture (an ability which is itself a part of the social suite). The diversity might conceal an underlying universality that, paradoxically, might relate more to our genes than to cultural exigencies. Evolutionary psychologists John Tooby and Leda Cosmides provide a fanciful illustration of this idea. They suggest a thought experiment in which aliens replace humans with jukeboxes, each of which has a repertoire of thousands of songs and the ability to play a particular song according to where and when it is. We would then observe that jukeboxes in different parts of the world played different songs at different times, songs that were similar to those on the jukeboxes near them. But none of this intergroup variation and intragroup commonality would have anything to do with the workings of culture. This is a way of illustrating that humans might have an inborn ability to respond flexibly ― but also predictably ─ to their environment.

[2025 수특영어: 16강 – 03]

When companies select leaders, two of the first questions they ask are, "Has he done anything like this before?" "What is his track record?" We assume that if that person has done it before (and done it well), he can do it again. Experience is still important for leaders, and there are times when it is the most effective predictor of future success. The problem, however, is that because of constantly improving technology, processes, and best practices in a world that is constantly changing and where success is being continually redefined, experience can be a handicap. Today, leaders must discipline themselves to look at problems and opportunities with a fresh eye. This is difficult because people naturally want to repeat an approach that worked in a similar situation. It is a challenge to consider an alternative to what brought you success in the past or to your current position in the present.

[2025 수특영어: 16강 – 04]

Smell is not just a sense that determines taste; it is also a powerful force that stimulates desire and may even overwhelm the other senses. In the past decade, aromatherapy has emerged as an alternative healing practice, as well as a new product to be advertised to consumers. Some stores spread scents of freshly baked bread or apple pie to encourage shoppers to stay longer and buy more. Smells are also important for distinguishing between edible and inedible foods. Herbal medicine stores frequently have a wide variety of pungent odors. The preparation of herbal medicines may include cooking plants into liquid form or distilling essences with alcohol, which often creates an odor. Yet biomedical pills and tablets are prepared in ways that deemphasize smells considered to be more palatable. The absence of smells further distances medicine from food.

[2025 수특영어: 16강 – 05]

The divergence between parental and peer values does not necessarily lead to a hostile confrontation between parents and teenagers. In fact, most youngsters are just as friendly with parents as with peers. They simply engage in different types of activities ― work and task activities with parents, play and recreation with peers. Concerning financial, educational, career, and other serious matters, such as what to spend money on and what occupation to choose, youths are inclined to seek advice from parents. When it comes to social activities, such as whom to date and what clubs to join, they are more likely to discuss them with peers. This reflects the great importance placed by the peer group on other-directed behavior, looking to others for approval and support as opposed to reliance on personal beliefs and traditional values. Peer groups, in effect, demand conformity at the expense of independence and individuality.

[2025 수특영어: 16강 – 06]

One important point related to the possibility of reproducing believable tactile sensations in virtual or machine-mediated environments lies in the role of "pain." Certainly, a number of real interactions can never be entirely believable without the presence of painful stimulation. However, one might wonder whether reproducing such kinds of stimulation would ever be of any use within virtual or mediated interactions. Shouldn't a "virtual" world be, in some sense, "better" without pain? Even if not immediately intuitive, there are a (admittedly small) number of situations in which the ability to deliver painful stimulation comes in handy within mediated environments. In fact, numerous attempts have been made over the course of the last few years to reproduce these aspects of our perception as well. This may occur in video games to increase the realism of the simulation or even more importantly in training programs for soldiers where pain is an occupational hazard and will need to be dealt with.

[2025 수특영어: 17강 – Gateway]

Even those with average talent can produce notable work in the various sciences, so long as they do not try to embrace all of them at once. Instead, they should concentrate attention on one subject after another (that is, in different periods of time), although later work will weaken earlier attainments in the other spheres. This amounts to saying that the brain adapts to universal science in time but not in space. In fact, even those with great abilities proceed in this way. Thus, when we are astonished by someone with publications in different scientific fields, realize that each topic was explored during a specific period of time. Knowledge gained earlier certainly will not have disappeared from the mind of the author, but it will have become simplified by condensing into formulas or greatly abbreviated symbols. Thus, sufficient space remains for the perception and learning of new images on the cerebral blackboard.

[2025 수특영어: 17강 – 01]

Consider a bar of soap, the kind you keep by the bathroom sink to wash your hands and face. How much meaning could such an innocuous object contain? While it may be tempting to answer "not much," or even "none," in fact, even soap can embody a rich set of symbols. Think about a particular brand of soap. By itself, that soap cleans like any other soap. But through some clever marketing, packaging, and advertising, the brand immerses its soap in a complex set of messages about the environment, personal empowerment, and progressive politics. The brand's website even says, "We are committed to animal protection, environmental protection and respect for human rights." These meanings allow the brand's customers to do more with the soap than just clean their faces: By using these products, they can make a statement about what kind of person they are and what kind of politics they embrace.

[2025 수특영어: 17강 – 02]

Comparative psychology finds that pointing (in its full-blown form) is unique to our species. Few nonhuman species seem able to comprehend pointing (notably, domestic dogs can follow pointing, while our closest relatives among the great apes cannot), and there is little evidence of pointing occurring spontaneously between members of any species other than our own. Apparently only humans have the social-cognitive infrastructure needed to support the kind of cooperative and prosocial motivations that pointing gestures presuppose. This suggests a new place to look for the foundations of human language. While research on language in cognitive science has long focused on its logical structure, the news about pointing suggests an alternative: that the essence of language is found in our capacity for the communion of minds through shared intentionality. At the center of it is the deceptively simple act of pointing, an act that must be mastered before language can be learned at all.

[2025 수특영어: 17강 – 03]

We come into the world ready to start relationships and, as we gain control of our body, we're keen to take part in games and tasks that involve working with others. In this way, we're so different from young chimps. Experiments have shown chimps can understand collaborative tasks perfectly well, but they only bother to take part if they can see how it will result in their getting a piece of fruit or some other reward. Humans, by contrast, often work together just for the joy of it. Experiments have shown that working with others affects children's behavior. Afterward, they're more generous in sharing any treats the experimenters give them ― as if working with others has put them in a better mood. It seems unlikely that children's greater willingness to share is simply the result of learning that they should pay people for working with them, but the way we feel about everything is strongly influenced by the experiences that shaped the development of our brain. Our childhood observations of others don't just help us learn how to behave; they help us understand how we're supposed to feel.

[2025 수특영어: 17강 – 04]

The theory of reasoned action maintains that a person's decision to engage in a purposeful activity depends on several factors, of which some are situational and some are mediated by personal dispositions or characteristics. At the core of the theory is the idea that when people engage in a given behavior it is because they formed an intention to do so and have reasons for their decision to actualize their intentions. Because of this, much of our behavior can be characterized as "reasoned action." Fishbein and Ajzen suggested that behavioral intentions are controlled by two factors: attitude toward an act and the normative component. Attitude toward an act is influenced by the beliefs that people have about the consequences of performing an act. The normative component is controlled by our beliefs about what valued others (i.e., people important in our lives) expect us to do. For some behaviors we rely more on our attitude toward an act, whereas for other behaviors we may rely more on the normative component for guidance on how to behave.

[2025 수특영어: 18강 – Gateway]

One way to avoid contributing to overhyping a story would be to say nothing. However, that is not a realistic option for scientists who feel a strong sense of responsibility to inform the public and policymakers and/or to offer suggestions. Speaking with members of the media has advantages in getting a message out and perhaps receiving favorable recognition, but it runs the risk of misinterpretations, the need for repeated clarifications, and entanglement in never-ending controversy. Hence, the decision of whether to speak with the media tends to be highly individualized. Decades ago, it was unusual for Earth scientists to have results that were of interest to the media, and consequently few media contacts were expected or encouraged. In the 1970s, the few scientists who spoke frequently with the media were often criticized by their fellow scientists for having done so. The situation now is quite different, as many scientists feel a responsibility to speak out because of the importance of global warming and related issues, and many reporters share these feelings. In addition, many scientists are finding that they enjoy the media attention and the public recognition that comes with it. At the same time, other scientists continue to resist speaking with reporters, thereby preserving more time for their science and avoiding the risk of being misquoted and the other unpleasantries associated with media coverage.

[2025 수특영어: 18강 – 01~02]

We trust our common sense largely because we are prone to naive realism: the belief that we see the world precisely as it is. We assume that 'seeing is believing' and trust our intuitive perceptions of the world and ourselves. In daily life, naive realism often serves us well. If you are driving down a one-lane road and see a tractor-trailer moving uncontrollably towards you at 120 kilometres per hour, it is a wise idea to get out of the way. Much of the time, we should trust our perceptions. Yet appearances can sometimes be deceptive. The Earth seems flat. The sun seems to revolve around the Earth. Yet in both cases, our intuitions are wrong. Sometimes, what appears to be obvious can mislead us when it comes to evaluating ourselves and others. Our common sense tells us that our memories accurately capture virtually everything we have seen, although scientific research demonstrates otherwise. Our common sense also assures us that people who do not share our political views are biased, but that we are objective. Yet psychological research demonstrates that we are all susceptible to evaluating political issues in a biased fashion. So our tendencies to believe appearances can lead us to draw erroneous conclusions about human nature. In many cases, 'believing is seeing' rather than the reverse: our beliefs shape our perceptions of the world.

[2025 수특영어: 18강 – 03~04]

Some people claim that gratitude is just about thinking nice thoughts and expecting good things ─ and ignores the negativity, pain, and suffering in life. Well, they're wrong. Consider our definition of gratitude, as a specific way of thinking about receiving a benefit and giving credit to others besides yourself for that benefit. In fact, gratitude can be very difficult, because it requires that you recognize your dependence on others, and that's not always positive. You have to humble yourself, in the sense that you have to become a good receiver of others' support and generosity. That can be very hard ─ most people are better givers than receivers. What's more, feelings of gratitude can sometimes stir up related feelings of indebtedness and obligation, which doesn't sound like positive thinking at all: If I am grateful for something you provided to me, I have to take care of that thing ─ I might even have to reciprocate at some appropriate time in the future. That type of indebtedness or obligation can be perceived very negatively ─ it can cause people real discomfort, as Jill Suttie explores in her essay "How to Say Thanks Without Feeling Indebted." The data bear this out. When people are grateful, they aren't necessarily free of negative emotions ─ we don't find that they necessarily have less anxiety or less tension or less unhappiness. Practicing gratitude magnifies positive feelings more than it reduces negative feelings. If gratitude were just positive thinking, or a form of denial, you'd experience no negative thoughts or feelings when you're keeping a gratitude journal, for instance. But, in fact, people do.

[2025 수특영어: 18강 – 05~06]

In all social systems, it is true that people's behavior is influenced by social rules and they are extraordinarily adaptable. One natural experiment involving baboons is instructive. A study in 2004 examined how a troop of baboons dominated by large and aggressive males changed after all those dominant males caught a disease and died. With only smaller, gentler males remaining, the culture of that troop underwent a dramatic shift, moving from a social structure characterized by widespread bullying and fighting to one with much more peaceful grooming. Conflict was still there, of course, but it tended to be resolved with peaceful methods, and the fighting that did happen was more between equally matched baboons, instead of a big one picking on a small one. Remarkably, the culture of that troop persisted even after all those original males had died off and were replaced by others coming in from outside. The new males were acculturated to the group norms, and learned to behave less aggressively. Obviously, humans are not baboons. But it seems highly possible that this is basically similar to why different human societies can have much different behavioral norms ― consider premodern tribes who worshiped their ancestors and shared food in common, medieval peasants who accepted the divine right of kings and performed free labor for feudal lords, and people today who believe in democracy and corporate employment contracts. Human societies have much more complexity and choice than baboon societies, but the point is that behavioral norms are to a great degree the product of culture and learning, not the other way around.

[2025 수특영어: 18강 – 07~08]

Not surprisingly, usage of unsafely designed and insecurely implemented software presents some risks. After distributed software reaches user sites, installation and administration of system and application software, when improperly performed, may adversely affect performance and proper functioning of such software. Due to the complexity as well as due to inadequate documentation of these systems, users hardly understand effects of their attempts to "properly" use such systems. Consequently, users apply "trial and error" methods in learning to work with new features, rather than trying methodologically to understand which functions may have which effects, and which precautions should be taken to avoid unwished side-effects. This somewhat "explorative" way to use systems rather often leads to a risky attitude with potentially harmful effects, e.g. by clicking on unknown attachments without due care. Software manufacturers often argue that failure of software is mainly caused by improper actions of users. But in many ― if not most ― cases, the human-computer interface (e.g. the display of functions and operations on the screen, or the handling of input devices such as mouse and keyboard) is inadequately designed and users are not properly supported by help functions (which when existing in many cases are so complex that users are further misled). While users are primarily interested in doing their work, one must admit that they rather often tend to forget about any precaution and even sometimes bypass security measures when thinking that their work performance is reduced.

[2025 수특영어: 19강 – Gateway]

Emma and Clara stood side by side on the beach road, with their eyes fixed on the boundless ocean. The breathtaking scene that surrounded them was beyond description. Just after sunrise, they finished their preparations for the bicycle ride along the beach road. Emma turned to Clara with a question, "Do you think this will be your favorite ride ever?" Clara's face lit up with a bright smile as she nodded. "Definitely! I can't wait to ride while watching those beautiful waves!" Emma and Clara jumped on their bikes and started to pedal toward the white cliff where the beach road ended. Speeding up and enjoying the wide blue sea, Emma couldn't hide her excitement and exclaimed, "Clara, the view is amazing!" Clara's silence, however, seemed to say that she was lost in her thoughts. Emma understood the meaning of her silence. Watching Clara riding beside her, Emma thought about Clara's past tragedy, which she now seemed to have overcome. Clara used to be a talented swimmer, but she had to give up her dream of becoming an Olympic medalist in swimming because of shoulder injuries. Yet she responded to the hardship in a constructive way. After years of hard training, she made an incredible recovery and found a new passion for bike riding. Emma saw how the painful past made her maturer and how it made her stronger in the end. One hour later, Clara, riding ahead of Emma, turned back and shouted, "Look at the white cliff!" When they reached their destination, Emma and Clara stopped their bikes. Emma approached Clara, saying "Bicycle riding is unlike swimming, isn't it?" Clara answered with a smile, "Quite similar, actually. Just like swimming, riding makes me feel truly alive." She added, "It shows me what it means to live while facing life's tough challenges." Emma nodded in agreement and suggested, "Your first beach bike ride was a great success. How about coming back next summer?" Clara replied with delight, "With you, absolutely!"

[2025 수특영어: 19강 – 01~03]

Monica Padman left college in 2009 with two degrees in hand ― one in theater and one in public relations. She moved to Hollywood to follow her dream of becoming an actor and comedian. Like most striving actors, she worked a variety of part-time jobs in between auditions and small roles. Padman scored a small part on Showtime's House of Lies, where she played the on-screen assistant to the actress Kristen Bell. They became friendly, and when Padman realized Bell had a young daughter, she mentioned that she did some babysitting. Bell and her husband, the actor Dax Shepard, took her up on the offer. As she saw the challenges Bell faced juggling multiple acting and producing projects, she offered to help her with scheduling. Though it might have been tempting for the aspiring actress to ask the Hollywood A-lister to help her get on-screen roles, Padman worked where she was needed ― ironically, as Bell's off-screen assistant. When Bell and Shepard asked her to work for them full-time, Padman was understandably reluctant ― how would she find time to audition? The job could be a detour. But Padman decided to take it. Over time, she became a friend and creative partner to Bell. She worked energetically wherever she saw a need. "Everything she does is at 110 percent," Bell said of Padman. Before long, Padman had become so essential that Bell wondered aloud, "How did I do any of this without her?" While working for her family, Padman spent many hours sitting on the terrace debating with Bell's husband. Their arguments were as fun as they were fierce, so when Bell suggested they develop their banter into a podcast, Padman was up for that too. Thus was born Armchair Expert. The podcast became 2018's most downloaded new podcast and has continued to grow in popularity. Padman could have pursued a direct path to her passion. Instead, she worked wholeheartedly where she could be most useful. By working passionately in Bell's house, she found a bigger opportunity and, perhaps, her true purpose.

[2025 수특영어: 19강 – 04~06]

An old and weak soldier was playing his violin one evening on the Prater, in Vienna. His faithful dog was holding his hat, in which passers-by dropped a few coppers as they came along. However, on the evening in question nobody stopped to put a small coin into the old soldier's hat. Everyone went straight on, and the joy of the crowd added to the sorrow in the old soldier's heart, which showed itself in his withered face. However, all at once, a well-dressed gentleman came up to where the old solider stood, listened to his playing for a few minutes, and gazed compassionately upon him. Before long, the old solder's tired hand had no longer strength to grasp his bow. His limbs refused to carry him farther. He seated himself on a stone, rested his head on his hands, and began to weep silently. At that instant the gentleman approached, offered the old soldier a piece of gold, and said: "Lend me your violin a little while." Then, having carefully tuned his violin, the gentleman said: "You take the money and I'll play." He did play! All the passers-by stopped to listen ― struck with the distinguished air of the musician and fascinated by his marvelous genius. Every moment the circle became larger and larger. Not copper alone, but silver ― and even gold ― was dropped into the old soldier's hat. The dog began to growl, for it was becoming too heavy for him to hold. At an invitation from the audience, the old soldier emptied its contents into his bag, and they filled it again. After a national melody, in which everyone present joined, with uncovered heads, the violinist placed the instrument upon the poor soldier's knees, and, without waiting to be thanked, disappeared. "Who is it?" was asked on all sides. "It is Armand Boucher, the famous violin player," replied someone in the crowd. "He has been turning his art to account in the service of charity. Let us follow his example." And the speaker sent round his hat also, made a new collection, and gave the proceeds to the old solider, crying, "Long live Boucher!" Deeply affected, the old solider thanked everyone around him.

[2025 수특영어: 19강 – 07~09]

One day when I was little, my father told me the story of how Say Say had come to be with us. My father was talking to my mother about his work in the Kler Lwee Htu district, from where he had just returned. It was far distant from us, and much closer to the front line where the Burmese military were attacking our villages. The Burmese regime had a notorious policy called the 'Four Cuts', which was designed to crush the Karen. It was brutally simple: it would cut off all supplies, information, recruits and food to the Karen resistance. The Four Cuts policy was hurting people terribly, my father explained. As a small child I couldn't understand everything he told us. I knew my people were starving to death, but I was scared, and I didn't want to think about it. I could see that my father was suffering, but I tried to close my mind to that. We were all closer to our mother at this time, for the simple reason that she was around. I'd grow close to my father when he was with us, but hurt, and distant, when he left. The Four Cuts policy had driven families to ever more desperate measures. One day a man who worked for the resistance had approached my father. Over their time spent working together they had grown to like and respect each other. He told my father that he had seven children, and that he wanted one at least to get a proper education. But the Four Cuts policy had destroyed all the schools in the area. He asked my father if he could take one of his older sons, Say Say, and give him an education in our home village. My mother and father had only one child at this time ― my older sister, Bwa Bwa ― and my father felt a deep sympathy for his friend. He agreed to take Say Say as one of his own children, and so Say Say became my parents' adopted son. Once a year Say Say's father would try to visit, if he could afford the time to make the long journey. Whenever he did, he was so happy and proud to see how well his son was doing in his studies at school.

[2025 수특영어: 19강 – 10~12]

Long ago in New Orleans, there was an old gentleman named Raymond, who would sit on his porch every day. Raymond enjoyed his time outdoors, communing with nature and the neighbors and soaking up sunshine. Every day at the same time a kid would walk down his street on his way home from school. Raymond enjoyed talking to the local kid and the kid also loved talking with him. They kept an eye out for each other. However, this kid had developed a bad habit. On his way down the street every day, he would beat on the metal trash cans with sticks. Raymond found this very annoying and tried to ask the kid to stop, but he didn't want to listen to the old man on the porch. Raymond decided to put the concepts of intrinsic motivation and reinforcement theory to work. The next time the kid came down the street he complimented him on the sound he made and said he would pay him a dollar a day if he promised to do it every day. The kid accepted and every day for the following week the kid banged on cans and Raymond paid him a dollar. The next week Raymond told the kid that he was short on money (even though that wasn't really true) and that he could only pay him fifty cents a day for banging on cans. The kid was not happy about this new arrangement, but agreed anyway and got his fifty cents each day after banging cans. The week after that Raymond told the kid that money was even tighter and that he could only pay him twenty-five cents per day. Again, the kid was not happy about this new arrangement, but agreed anyway and banged cans and got his twenty-five cents each day. After a week of paying the kid twenty-five cents a day, Raymond approached the kid and told him he couldn't pay him anymore but he still wanted him to continue to bang cans. This time the kid did not agree. He was angry about not getting paid and refused to bang on cans anymore. Raymond continues to sit on his porch every day, enjoying nature, his neighbors, and soaking up the sun.

[2025 수특영어: 20강 – Gateway]

Jean Renoir (1894-1979), a French film director, was born in Paris, France. He was the son of the famous painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir. He and the rest of the Renoir family were the models of many of his father's paintings. At the outbreak of World War I, Jean Renoir was serving in the French army but was wounded in the leg. In 1937, he made La Grande Illusion, one of his better-known films. It was enormously successful but was not allowed to show in Germany. During World War II, when the Nazis invaded France in 1940, he went to Hollywood in the United States and continued his career there. He was awarded numerous honors and awards throughout his career, including the Academy Honorary Award in 1975 for his lifetime achievements in the film industry. Overall, Jean Renoir's influence as a film-maker and artist endures.

[2025 수특영어: 20강 – 01]

Marcel Pagnol was born in Aubagne in 1895, and died in 1974. The son of a primary school teacher, whom he described so vividly in his Souvenirs d'enfance (childhood memories), this southern Frenchman began his professional life as an English teacher. However, he quickly earned a reputation for his plays in the 1920s: the extraordinary success of Topaze in 1927 and Marius in 1928 established him as a playwright. Marcel Pagnol had long been interested in the cinema, but had to wait for the development of talking picture techniques to use his full vigor as a dialogue writer. His first few films were adaptations of his theatrical works, for example the highly acclaimed trilogy Marius, Fanny and Cesar. The public success was enormous at both national and international levels. This persuaded Marcel Pagnol to devote himself exclusively to the cinema. For his second film he set up his own production company, La societe des films Marcel Pagnol. He was certain that the dramatist of the past would be the film-maker of the future, a thesis which he controversially developed in a short-lived critical review entitled Les cahiers du film.

[2025 수특영어: 20강 – 02]

When he was a Harvard student, world-famous cellist Yo-Yo Ma played often at concerts in and around Boston. He became very popular, and one day when one of his concerts was sold out, he gave a free concert for those who were unable to obtain tickets ― he sat in the theater lobby and played Bach cello suites. Later in his career, when he was an international success, he still would often give more than required. For example, many guest cello soloists play in the first half of a concert, then they are finished for the night. However, Mr. Ma would sometimes play as part of the orchestra in the second half of the concert ─ doing this with the Philadelphia Orchestra was especially enjoyable for him. He says, "It is an honor to play the back stands of the Philadelphia Orchestra. It's incredible the way those players listen, the knowledge they have. I admire it so much. And I feel the thrill of being part of something that's greater than the sum of its parts ― being accepted as part of the team."

[2025 수특영어: 20강 – 03]

In the summer of 1878, a thirty-year-old Dutch botanist named Hugo de Vries traveled to England to see Darwin. It was more of a spiritual journey than a scientific visit. Darwin was vacationing at his sister's estate in Dorking, but de Vries tracked him down and traveled out to meet him. Thin, intense, and excitable, with a beard that rivaled Darwin's, de Vries already looked like a younger version of his idol. He also had Darwin's persistence. The meeting must have been exhausting, for it lasted only two hours, and Darwin had to excuse himself to take a break. But de Vries left England transformed. With no more than a brief conversation, Darwin had inserted a sluice into de Vries's racing mind, completely redirecting it forever. Back in Amsterdam, de Vries suddenly terminated his prior work on the movement of tendrils in plants and threw himself into solving the mystery of heredity.

[2025 수특영어: 21강 – Gateway]

In the post-World War II years after 1945, unparalleled economic growth fueled a building boom and a massive migration from the central cities to the new suburban areas. The suburbs were far more dependent on the automobile, signaling the shift from primary dependence on public transportation to private cars. Soon this led to the construction of better highways and freeways and the decline and even loss of public transportation. With all of these changes came a privatization of leisure. As more people owned their own homes, with more space inside and lovely yards outside, their recreation and leisure time was increasingly centered around the home or, at most, the neighborhood. One major activity of this home-based leisure was watching television. No longer did one have to ride the trolly to the theater to watch a movie; similar entertainment was available for free and more conveniently from television.

[2025 수특영어: 21강 – 01]

It is uncontroversially true that people in different societies have different customs and different ideas about right and wrong. There is no world consensus on which actions are right and wrong, even though there is a considerable overlap between views on this. If we consider how much moral views have changed both from place to place and from age to age it can be tempting to think that there are no absolute moral facts, but rather that morality is always relative to the society in which you have been brought up. On such a view, since slavery was morally acceptable to most Ancient Greeks but is not to most Europeans today, slavery was right for the Ancient Greeks but would be wrong for today's Europeans. This view, known as moral relativism, makes morality simply a description of the values held by a particular society at a particular time. This is a meta-ethical view about the nature of moral judgements. Moral judgements can only be judged true or false relative to a particular society. There are no absolute moral judgements: they are all relative.

[2025 수특영어: 21강 – 02]

If the United States has one of the easiest geographies to develop, Mexico has one of the most difficult. The entirety of Mexico is in essence the southern extension of the Rocky Mountains, which is a kind way of saying that America's worst lands are strikingly similar to Mexico's best lands. As one would expect from a territory that is mountain-dominated, there are no navigable rivers and no large cohesive pieces of fertile land like the American Southeast or the Columbia valley, much less the Midwest. Each mountain valley is a sort of fastness where a small handful of oligarchs control local economic and political life. Mexico shouldn't be thought of as a unified state, but instead as a collage of dozens of little Mexicos where local power brokers constantly align with and against each other (and a national government seeking ─ often in vain ─ to stitch together something more cohesive). In its regional disconnectedness, Mexico is a textbook case that countries with the greatest need for capital-intensive infrastructure are typically the countries with the lowest ability to generate the capital necessary to build that infrastructure.

[2025 수특영어: 21강 – 03]

When Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote the words, "Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink" in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in 1798, the dangers of drinking seawater had been known for thousands of years. Seawater does indeed make men mad. Historical evidence indicates the ancient Egyptians knew seawater was not potable, but the earliest realization that it was unsafe to drink has been lost to antiquity. In pre-Columbian times, the greatest fear of venturing too far from land on the ocean was not falling off the surface of the Earth but lack of fresh drinking water. From a human perspective, the oceans, which cover 70% of Earth's surface, are still the most extensive and unique desert wildernesses on the planet. Saltwater constitutes 97% of Earth's water, and of the 3% that is fresh, two-thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice. Thus, a mere 1% of all the water on the planet (in lakes and rivers, groundwater, and the atmosphere) is fresh and can be used by terrestrial plants and animals.

[2025 수특영어: 22강 – Gateway]

Urban delivery vehicles can be adapted to better suit the density of urban distribution, which often involves smaller vehicles such as vans, including bicycles. The latter have the potential to become a preferred 'last-mile' vehicle, particularly in high-density and congested areas. In locations where bicycle use is high, such as the Netherlands, delivery bicycles are also used to carry personal cargo (e.g. groceries). Due to their low acquisition and maintenance costs, cargo bicycles convey much potential in developed and developing countries alike, such as the becak (a three-wheeled bicycle) in Indonesia. Services using electrically assisted delivery tricycles have been successfully implemented in France and are gradually being adopted across Europe for services as varied as parcel and catering deliveries. Using bicycles as cargo vehicles is particularly encouraged when combined with policies that restrict motor vehicle access to specific areas of a city, such as downtown or commercial districts, or with the extension of dedicated bike lanes.

[2025 수특영어: 22강 – 01]

Shifting demographics, household structures, lifestyle preferences, and consumer values suggest a different built environment and urban fabric 30 years ahead compared with 30 years ago. More and more Americans, Australians, and Europeans are choosing to live in settings where they are less dependent on their cars because reducing air pollution and energy use matters to them. A 2011 survey of more than two thousand adult Americans found seven times more people said the neighborhood where a house is located is a bigger consideration in deciding where to live than the size of the house. Walking to restaurants, businesses, schools, and other amenities was the most appealing neighborhood feature for many respondents. To many 20- and 30-somethings, walkable communities are equated with a downsized environmental footprint and energy efficiency, with the added benefit of burning calories during everyday activities. If green buildings and solar panels dot the landscape and rooftops, all the better. Notes one economist with the Urban Land Institute, "Energy efficiency is becoming the new granite countertops; it's a necessary feature to sell the property."

[2025 수특영어: 22강 – 02]

In recent years, there has been an increasing tendency of economists, scientists, and politicians to shift the focus from population growth to consumption as the more important underlying driver of biodiversity loss. For many, the emphasis on consumption avoids politically charged topics, such as population control, which most people oppose on ethical or moral grounds, and because it is associated with divisive topics such as xenophobia, racism, and eugenics. Others highlight that it is not the number of people per se, but how natural resources are consumed that is the main cause of environmental decline. Indeed, rich people and rich countries have a disproportionate impact on the natural environment because they consume a disproportionately large share of the world's natural resources. To use one example, the USA accommodates only 5% of the world's human population but uses 25% of the world's harvested natural resources each year. In fact, decorative Christmas lights in the USA alone use more energy than the annual energy usage of the entirety of Ethiopia or Tanzania. And yet, the average USA citizen uses less than half of the energy that an average citizen of Qatar uses, Qatar being a small but wealthy Middle Eastern country.

[2025 수특영어: 22강 – 03]

Movies featuring wonderful natural landscapes and charismatic wildlife often increase the desire of moviegoers to visit natural areas where they can see these landscapes and animals first-hand. But they can also raise awareness of environmental issues in new audiences. While many documentaries are created with this purpose in mind, such benefits can also extend to blockbuster movies meant for broader audiences. For example, Disney's Happy Feet highlighted the threat of overfishing and plastic pollution to penguins; The Jungle Book exposed audiences to the endangered pangolins. Such exposure can even lead to environmentally conscious behavioural changes. For example, moviegoers were willing to donate 50% more money to climate mitigation after watching the apocalyptic movie The Day After Tomorrow . Perhaps, in part, due to the influence of environmentally-orientated movies, an increasing number of movie stars (and other celebrities) have started using their stardom as a platform from where they promote biodiversity conservation efforts in Africa.

[2025 수특영어: 23강 – Gateway]

Plants show finely tuned adaptive responses when nutrients are limiting. Gardeners may recognize yellow leaves as a sign of poor nutrition and the need for fertilizer. But if a plant does not have a caretaker to provide supplemental minerals, it can proliferate or lengthen its roots and develop root hairs to allow foraging in more distant soil patches. Plants can also use their memory to respond to histories of temporal or spatial variation in nutrient or resource availability. Research in this area has shown that plants are constantly aware of their position in the environment, in terms of both space and time. Plants that have experienced variable nutrient availability in the past tend to exhibit risk-taking behaviors, such as spending energy on root lengthening instead of leaf production. In contrast, plants with a history of nutrient abundance are risk averse and save energy. At all developmental stages, plants respond to environmental changes or unevenness so as to be able to use their energy for growth, survival, and reproduction, while limiting damage and nonproductive uses of their valuable energy.

[2025 수특영어: 23강 – 01]

Many aspects of an ant's appearance have likely evolved to meet a specific lifestyle requirement, although the extent to which this is true has not been fully explored for all aspects of its body structure. Adaptations could be due to environment, available food, or predators. Long legs and large eyes are commonly seen in ground-foraging ants that need to move quickly to avoid predators in open ground or be the first to acquire a food resource. In contrast, ants that forage and nest in leaf litter have shorter legs and antennae, alongside small eyes. This makes sense in the dark environment of leaf litter where moving through small spaces is easier with a compact body plan. Based on the unique combination of body size measurements, scientists can predict where an ant nests and forages or even what kind of food it eats. Predators have longer, flatter mandibles, while omnivores ─ those eating a diverse range of foods ─ have shorter, curved mandibles.

[2025 수특영어: 23강 – 02]

The largest species of octopus in the world, the giant Pacific octopus, usually grows to about 3 m in length and weighs up to 272 kg. It lives on the rim of the North Pacific Ocean, where it crawls about on the bottom, using its long, sucker-covered arms. It seeks out rocky dens on the seabed; youngsters will often dig holes under rocks in sand. Here, the octopus can take refuge from predators ─ seals, sharks, and other large fishes ─ too big to slip through the den mouth. Foraging mainly at night, this giant octopus looks especially for crabs and lobsters, but also takes shrimp and shellfish, smaller octopuses, and fishes. Often it will return to its den to feed, depositing empty shells and other inedible fragments of prey in piles at the entrance. Like its relatives, this octopus mostly lives alone, except for a brief period when adults come together for mating. The female lays her eggs in a den, and will tend them until her young emerge. She will not feed in all this time ─ and will die soon after her young emerge.

[2025 수특영어: 23강 – 03]

However skilled you may be at bowling, there will always be minute changes in the angle at which you release the ball that will be magnified as the ball travels the length of the lane. As it strikes, the first skittle falls back either slightly to the right or the left, and the ball is deflected slightly in the other direction. From then on, within a fraction of a second, skittles start falling in different directions, sometimes hitting others as they fall. The differences in the final arrangement of skittles each time are difficult to predict from the slight variation of angle as the ball leaves the bowler's hand. Even those who can achieve strike after strike actually achieve a different strike every time, for the skittles will never fall in exactly the same way twice.

[2025 수특영어: 24강 – Gateway]

The above graph shows the share of the EU-28 population participating in tourism in 2017 by age group and destination category. The share of people in the No Trips category was over 30% in each of the five age groups. The percentage of people in the Outbound Trips Only category was higher in the 25-34 age group than in the 35-44 age group. In the 35-44 age group, the percentage of people in the Domestic Trips Only category was 34.2%. The percentage of people in the Domestic & Outbound Trips category was lower in the 45-54 age group than in the 55-64 age group. In the 65 or over age group, the percentage of people in the No Trips category was more than 50%.

[2025 수특영어: 24강 – 01]

Spectators are seen as a source of drive arousal. This heightened state of arousal is presumed to facilitate the performance of well-learned or simple skills. However, if a skill is not well-learned or complex, the increase in arousal will interfere with its performance. The underlying notion is that an increase in drive arousal favors the emission of the performer's dominant responses. In the case of a skilled performer, her dominant responses are presumed to be largely "correct" ones. Her performance stands to be improved with an audience present. In a case where the performer is still struggling to master a skill, incorrect responses are present in abundance and are thereby presumed to be dominant responses. As a consequence, onlookers can only worsen the performance of a beginner. Hence, the performer's level of skill and the complexity of the skill itself will determine whether an audience helps or hinders a performance.

[2025 수특영어: 24강 – 02]

Athletes do require more protein (and all nutrients) than sedentary people, but there is no evidence that they require a higher percentage of protein compared to other macronutrients in their diet to perform more optimally. To put it another way, a diet with 10 percent protein is sufficient for most people, athlete and nonathlete alike. If an average adult female eats 2,000 calories, 10 percent is 200 calories from protein. If an average female athlete eats 3,000 calories, 10 percent is 300 calories from protein ― that's a 50 percent increase in protein achieved by simply eating more of the same foods. So when you exercise, you don't need to change the composition of the food (i.e., consuming foods with higher concentrations of protein or consuming protein powders). You just need to eat more of the same foods. The increased athletic activity will work up your hunger drive. In response, you will consume more protein as well as nutrients of all types. This works well since physical activity likely requires more of all nutrients, not just protein.

[2025 수특영어: 24강 – 03]

Once production shifts to industrial methods, the leisure consumer is free to seek pleasure in the older handcraft technology. Typically, the technology itself enters one or more paths to pleasure as the market recognizes hobby demand: tools and materials are designed for comfort, beauty, and satisfaction. Both needlework tools and those of hobby woodworking have undergone this transition, to name only two of many possible examples. Fountain pens, considered obsolete as a production technology for writing, are selling at four-figure prices to people who simply enjoy the process of forming words with ink on paper and are willing to pay a premium for the pleasure. In the 1950s, the late Shelby Foote reportedly wrote his three-volume 1.5-million-word history of the Civil War with a dip pen, eschewing the then-dominant writing technologies ─ the manual typewriter and the fountain pen ― thereby lending a new meaning to the term "belletristic history."

[2025 수특영어: 25강 – Gateway]

Charles Rosen, a virtuoso pianist and distinguished writer, was born in New York in 1927. Rosen displayed a remarkable talent for the piano from his early childhood. In 1951, the year he earned his doctoral degree in French literature at Princeton University, Rosen made both his New York piano debut and his first recordings. To glowing praise, he appeared in numerous recitals and orchestral concerts around the world. Rosen's performances impressed some of the 20th century's most well-known composers, who invited him to play their music. Rosen was also the author of many widely admired books about music. His most famous book, The Classical Style, was first published in 1971 and won the U.S. National Book Award the next year. This work, which was reprinted in an expanded edition in 1997, remains a landmark in the field. While writing extensively, Rosen continued to perform as a pianist for the rest of his life until he died in 2012.

[2025 수특영어: 25강 – 01]

Responding to life with joy and sorrow is part of being human. At times when pain and suffering are inescapable, it is important to remember that this is part of the process by which we acquire knowledge. This does not mean that one must be in discomfort to make art, but stress can be channeled into a creative force if it produces a sense of inquisitiveness and an incentive for change. Thinking through making pictures can allow us to place our distress in context. The images we make can help us understand its source, catalog its scope, adapt ourselves to its presence, and devise ways to control it. There are things in life, once called wisdom, which we have to discover for ourselves by making our own private journeys. Stress can be directed to open up possibilities for intelligent and imaginative inquiries and solutions that otherwise might have been ignored, overlooked, or refuted.

[2025 수특영어: 25강 – 02]

Architectural spaces become memorable through the architectural characteristics that define them. Qualities of scale, appropriateness for people, aesthetics, and visual impact are among the many components that give a place its character and feel. The purpose of a space can make it a place. The Oval Office in the White House is a good example of a place with enormous historic significance. The unique oval shape of this splendid room makes it memorable and gives it a special importance without being ostentatious. Incidentally, George Washington had two rooms at Mount Vernon altered to include bowed ends so he could greet guests while standing in the middle as they circled around him. Thomas Jefferson designed two oval meeting rooms in the main floor of the Rotunda at the University of Virginia. Oval rooms were seen as being democratic because no person could be placed at a more important position in the room than anyone else.

[2025 수특영어: 25강 – 03]

Museum and gallery exhibitions are 'hired' by or co-produced with other galleries; it is not uncommon for shows to be 'on the road' for two years or longer. Normally they are curated by one or more people, whose role includes researching the exhibition concept, the selection (or commissioning) of work, planning how the work will be hung within the exhibition space and writing a significant part of any accompanying book or catalogue. The power of the curator, operating regionally, nationally or internationally, has been questioned. Of course, curators take initiatives which contribute to the exposure of work. But they may also regularly favour certain artists, or types of work, at the expense of others. Furthermore, it has been suggested that curators often act more as 'creators', putting together themed exhibitions which, however relevant and interesting, serve as much to advance themselves as to showcase the work of artists. Indeed, all exhibitions and collections reflect the particular interests of their curators and archivists as well as the mission statement, priorities and terms of reference of particular organisations.

[2025 수특영어: 26강 – Gateway]

Certain hindrances to multifaceted creative activity may lie in premature specialization, i.e., having to choose the direction of education or to focus on developing one ability too early in life. However, development of creative ability in one domain may enhance effectiveness in other domains that require similar skills, and flexible switching between generality and specificity is helpful to productivity in many domains. Excessive specificity may result in information from outside the domain being underestimated and unavailable, which leads to fixedness of thinking, whereas excessive generality causes chaos, vagueness, and shallowness. Both tendencies pose a threat to the transfer of knowledge and skills between domains. What should therefore be optimal for the development of cross-domain creativity is support for young people in taking up creative challenges in a specific domain and coupling it with encouragement to apply knowledge and skills in, as well as from, other domains, disciplines, and tasks.

[2025 수특영어: 26강 – 01]

A significant challenge arises when we ask whether there is any such thing as general aptitude. Many people are terrific at calculus but couldn't write a good essay or paint a good picture if their lives depended on it. Some people can walk into a room full of strangers and immediately figure out the relationships and feelings among them; others may never learn this skill. As Will Rogers put it, "Everybody is ignorant, only on different topics." Clearly, individuals vary in their aptitude for learning any specific type of knowledge or skill taught in a specific way. A hundred students attending a lecture on a topic they knew nothing about beforehand will all walk away with different amounts and kinds of learning, and aptitude for that particular content and that particular teaching method is one important factor in explaining these differences. But would the students who learned the most in this class also learn the most if the lecture were on a different topic or if the same material were presented through hands-on experiences or in small groups?

[2025 수특영어: 26강 – 02]

One implication of expectancy theory is that even though all students should have a chance to be rewarded if they do their best, no student should have an easy time achieving the maximum reward. This principle is violated by traditional grading practices, because some students find it easy to earn A's and B's, whereas others believe that they have little chance of academic success no matter what they do. In this circumstance, neither high achievers nor low achievers are likely to exert their best efforts. This is one reason why it is important to reward students for effort, for doing better than they have done in the past, or for making progress, rather than only for getting a high score. For example, students can build a portfolio of compositions, projects, reports, or other work and can then see how their work is improving over time. Not all students are equally capable of achieving high scores, but all are equally capable of exerting effort, exceeding their own past performance, or making progress, so these are often better, more equally available criteria on which to base reward.

[2025 수특영어: 26강 – 03]

As students move into adolescence, they are developing capabilities for abstract thinking and understanding the perspectives of others. Even greater physical changes are taking place as the students approach puberty. So, with developing minds and bodies, young adolescents must confront the central issue of constructing an identity that will provide a firm basis for adulthood. They have been developing a sense of self since infancy. But adolescence marks the first time that a conscious effort is made to answer the now-pressing question: "Who am I?" The conflict defining this stage is identity versus role confusion. Identity refers to the organization of an individual's drives, abilities, beliefs, and history into a consistent image of self. It involves deliberate choices and decisions, particularly about work, values, ideology, and commitments to people and ideas. If adolescents fail to integrate all these aspects and choices, or if they feel unable to choose at all, role confusion threatens.

[2025 수특영어: 27강 – Gateway]

The need to assimilate values and lifestyle of the host culture has become a growing conflict. Multiculturalists suggest that there should be a model of partial assimilation in which immigrants retain some of their customs, beliefs, and language. There is pressure to conform rather than to maintain their cultural identities, however, and these conflicts are greatly determined by the community to which one migrates. These experiences are not new; many Europeans experienced exclusion and poverty during the first two waves of immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries. Eventually, these immigrants transformed this country with significant changes that included enlightenment and acceptance of diversity. People of color, however, continue to struggle for acceptance. Once again, the challenge is to recognize that other cultures think and act differently and that they have the right to do so. Perhaps, in the not too distant future, immigrants will no longer be strangers among us.

[2025 수특영어: 27강 – 01]

Some assumptions that notions of space (that is, a three-dimensional area in which events and objects occur and have relative direction and position) are universal ― are being reexamined. Stephen Levinson showed that "systems of spatial reckoning and description can in fact be quite divergent across cultures, linguistic differences correlating with distinct cognitive tendencies." More specifically, languages vary in their use of spatial concepts and, in some instances, determine the cognitive categories relating to space concepts; also, the speakers of a number of languages do not use spatial terms corresponding to the bodily coordinates of left-right and front-back. One example comes from the Tenejapa Tzeltal of Mexico: Their language uses no relative frame of reference and therefore has no terms for spatial reference that would correspond to left, right, front, and back. Although terms exist for left hand and right hand, they do not extend to other parts of the body or to areas external to it.

[2025 수특영어: 27강 – 02]

Languages are far more similar than had previously been thought, and that universality suggests that the human brain is designed to understand the world in certain ways, which may also correspond to the structure of reality. Thus, all languages have nouns and verbs, modifiers (adverbs and adjectives), and names and pronouns. Languages may differ as to the sequence of words in a sentence (e.g., verb in the middle or at the end), but sentences are always used. Even the sequence of words does not vary as widely as it could: Steven Pinker says that there are 128 possible orderings of the main parts of a sentence, but most languages use one of only two of those possibilities. Crucially, most languages seem to have an almost identical list of concepts, and as a result nearly all words and sentences can be translated effectively from one language into another.

[2025 수특영어: 27강 – 03]

Some performers manipulate the style of their product to shift the incentives of critics to pay attention. Richard Posner cites Shakespeare, Nietzsche, Wittgenstein, and Kafka as figures who owe part of their reputation to the puzzling and perhaps even contradictory nature of their writings. Unclear authors, at least if they have substance and depth, receive more attention from critics and require more textual interpretation. Individual critics can establish their own reputations by studying such a writer and by promoting one interpretation of that writer's work over another. These same critics will support the inclusion of the writer in the canon, to promote the importance of their own criticism. In effect, deep and ambiguous writers are offering critics implicit invitations to serve as coauthors of a broader piece of work. Critics respond by examining these works more closely and spreading their fame more widely.

[2025 수특영어: 28강 – Gateway]

The growing complexity of computer software has direct implications for our global safety and security, particularly as the physical objects upon which we depend ― things like cars, airplanes, bridges, tunnels, and implantable medical devices ― transform themselves into computer code. Physical things are increasingly becoming information technologies. Cars are "computers we ride in," and airplanes are nothing more than "flying Solaris boxes attached to bucketfuls of industrial control systems." As all this code grows in size and complexity, so too do the number of errors and software bugs. According to a study by Carnegie Mellon University, commercial software typically has twenty to thirty bugs for every thousand lines of code ― 50 million lines of code means 1 million to 1.5 million potential errors to be exploited. This is the basis for all malware attacks that take advantage of these computer bugs to get the code to do something it was not originally intended to do. As computer code grows more elaborate, software bugs flourish and security suffers, with increasing consequences for society at large.

[2025 수특영어: 28강 – 01]

The proliferation of data brings with it many challenges for both reporting and consuming information. Social networks themselves are biased by their constituents, which never exactly mirror the population at large. Certain ethnicities are overrepresented, a significant challenge to social news as an equalizer. In addition, a growing number of algorithms make automated decisions on which content to recommend for people to read. Algorithms are generating top-news lists or hot trends and personalizing recommendations for readers. Algorithms leave the impression of being neutral, yet they are not. Algorithms are human creations. They encode political choices of their designers and have cultural values baked in. As curatorial power is enhanced by automated systems, we should understand the biases at play. Perhaps more important, we should work to make sure product engineers and designers are seeking to optimize the wanted outcome ― an informed public ― not just heightened traffic.

[2025 수특영어: 28강 – 02]

How much time are we spending not truly connected to other things or people, in the analogue or real sense of the word? Not much. We have turned ourselves into human wearables, attached to our phones nonstop, with additional sensors from our smart watches and AI assistant devices, while we patiently await to upload our memories, fantasies, and consciousness to the cloud. In a relatively short time frame, we quickly transitioned from the internet to the internet of things and now the "You of Things," a concept that sees our bodies as part of an enormous sentient digital network, and our entire existence downgraded to the status of our smart TVs and refrigerator. Since our selves have been largely reduced to the digital fragments of our reputation captured in the many devices that connect us to others and the world, it is hard to disagree with Yuval Harari's argument that "we are becoming tiny chips inside a giant data-processing system that nobody really understands."

[2025 수특영어: 28강 – 03]

Much alarm and handwringing have occurred over the idea that the Internet allows you to lock yourself in an information bubble and see only facts that support your views. I am sure this happens, but it would do us good to remember the alternative. In 1980, for instance, you got your daily dose of information from your local paper and your choice of any of three network news shows, which ran for an hour, all covering the same basic stories. That was about it. We were all beholden to the views of a very few people. The Internet allows every statement to be fact-checked, every falsehood challenged. Anything you want to know is just a few keystrokes and a few clicks away. Well over 100,000 web searches are performed each second, and at their heart, they each represent a person who wants to know something they don't currently know. It is the great democratization of knowledge, which is an unquestionably good thing.

[2025 수특영어: 29강 – Gateway]

Viewing the stress response as a resource can transform the physiology of fear into the biology of courage. It can turn a threat into a challenge and can help you do your best under pressure. Even when the stress doesn't feel helpful ― as in the case of anxiety ― welcoming it can transform it into something that is helpful: more energy, more confidence, and a greater willingness to take action. You can apply this strategy in your own life anytime you notice signs of stress. When you feel your heart beating or your breath quickening, realize that it is your body's way of trying to give you more energy. If you notice tension in your body, remind yourself that the stress response gives you access to your strength. Sweaty palms? Remember what it felt like to go on your first date ― palms sweat when you're close to something you want.

[2025 수특영어: 29강 – 01]

Unfortunately, as we age, we tend to avoid vulnerability by avoiding change, so our learning opportunities are reduced and new learning slows. We've all had the experience of a reunion with an old friend, when listening to them saying how they've been, noticing how he or she has held onto some old beliefs that we discarded long ago. Probably the friend has not put himself or herself into a state of vulnerable openness for a long time. Personal growth involves trying out new behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs. Trying out something makes us vulnerable to failure and ridicule. When learning, we make mistakes, we look foolish ― even absurd. Who likes that? Willingness to take chances in life, to try new experiences, challenges or activities ― even though the outcome is unsure ― demands being vulnerable while doing so. Open-mindedness is one of those activities that we must do deliberately, because we are naturally inclined to avoid the vulnerability it entails.

[2025 수특영어: 29강 – 02]

Expectations influence children's behavior. After observing the amount of litter in three classrooms, Richard Miller and colleagues had the teacher and others repeatedly tell one class that they should be neat and tidy. This persuasion increased the amount of litter placed in wastebaskets from 15 to 45 percent, but only temporarily. Another class, which also had been placing only 15 percent of its litter in wastebaskets, was repeatedly congratulated for being so neat and tidy. After 8 days of hearing this, and still 2 weeks later, these children were fulfilling the expectation by putting more than 80 percent of their litter in wastebaskets. Tell children they are hardworking and kind (rather than lazy and mean), and they may live up to their labels. Tying the identity to the self is important: Children who were asked to be "a helper" were more likely to help in later tasks than those asked to "help." When children think of themselves as tidy and helpful, they become tidy and helpful.

[2025 수특영어: 29강 – 03]

If maintenance of a balance in a relationship requires much work, why bother aiming for the middle ground? The wonderful thing about relationships is that with the proper maintenance, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Ideally, both members get support to realize their potential as individuals as well as realizing the potential of the team. If things go sour, the tremendous energy drain of an irreparably damaged relationship can also mean that the whole is less than the sum of its parts. Pooling resources ― as in a joint savings account ― makes them optimally large. But if one person only deposits and the other person only withdraws, checks are going to start bouncing. Similarly, if only one person in a relationship is performing maintenance and the other is indifferent, their joint account will also wind up with insufficient funds. Overdraft protection might cover everyday necessities, but it won't help when something big comes around.

[2025 수특영어: 30강 – Gateway]

Why is the value of place so important? From a historical perspective, until the 1700s textile production was a hand process using the fibers available within a particular geographic region, for example, cotton, wool, silk, and flax. Trade among regions increased the availability of these fibers and associated textiles made from the fibers. The First Industrial Revolution and subsequent technological advancements in manufactured fibers added to the fact that fibers and textiles were no longer "place-bound." Fashion companies created and consumers could acquire textiles and products made from textiles with little or no connection to where, how, or by whom the products were made. This resulted in a disconnect between consumers and the products they use on a daily basis, a loss of understanding and appreciation in the skills and resources necessary to create these products, and an associated disregard for the human and natural resources necessary for the products' creation. Therefore, renewing a value on place reconnects the company and the consumer with the people, geography, and culture of a particular location.

[2025 수특영어: 30강 – 01]

The ancient Egyptian term for 'colour' was iwn ― a word that also meant 'skin', 'nature', 'character' and 'being', and was represented in part by a hieroglyph of human hair. The members of that civilization had noticed a striking resemblance between colours and humans. To them colours were just like people ― full of life, energy, power and personality. We now understand, as the Egyptians could only sense, how thoroughly the two are connected. Colour, after all, is ultimately made by its perceivers. Every hue we see around us is actually manufactured within us ─ in the same grey matter that forms language, stores memories, triggers emotions, shapes thoughts and gives rise to consciousness. Colour is a pigment of our imaginations that we paint all over the world. Larger than any city, more sophisticated than any machine, more beautiful than any painting, it might in fact be the greatest human creation of them all.

[2025 수특영어: 30강 – 02]

Bentham, the eighteenth-century utilitarian philosopher who promoted the social benefits of mass surveillance, designed a panopticon, a circular building where those to be observed, whether prisoners, workers, patients, or students, were placed in cells or rooms lined along an outside wall. An "inspector" sat in a booth at the center of the circle, unseen by those being watched, but able to see them. According to Bentham, even though this inspector could not observe every resident at every moment, simply knowing that they could be seen would be enough to make prisoners behave and keep workers and students on task. The panopticon's physical design proved impractical, but the idea that behavior could be regulated by stripping away privacy lived on. Closed-circuit television both on our streets and inside public and private spaces is the modern, subtle, and more practical version 2.0 of that first architectural panopticon.

[2025 수특영어: 30강 – 03]

The mode of consumption has been changing from ownership to access during recent years because of the shift in consumers' perception of value and the advancement of technology. With the advent of online platforms that has made unlimited number of tangible and intangible resources accessible, ownership has lost its value in the consumers' mind. Consumers believe that access to resources is associated with fewer risks than ownership; for example, they believe that the potential financial and social loss is greater in the purchase of a product than in the free or fee-based access to the product. All these new changes and beliefs have created a sharing practice named "sharing economy" in which individuals share their resources with others through online networks and promote the culture of collaborative consumption. Sharing economy practices, which are seen in different sectors, have become very popular and started to disrupt traditional businesses.

[2025 수특영어: 31강 – Gateway]

The role that sleep plays in evolution is still under study. One possibility is that it is an advantageous adaptive state of decreased metabolism for an animal when there are no more pressing activities. This seems true for deeper states of inactivity such as hibernation during the winter when there are few food supplies, and a high metabolic cost to maintaining adequate temperature. It may be true in daily situations as well, for instance for a prey species to avoid predators after dark. On the other hand, the apparent universality of sleep, and the observation that mammals such as cetaceans have developed such highly complex mechanisms to preserve sleep on at least one side of the brain at a time, suggests that sleep additionally provides some vital service(s) for the organism. This is particularly true since one aspect of sleep is decreased responsiveness to the environment. If sleep is universal even when this potential price must be paid, the implication may be that it has important functions that cannot be obtained just by quiet, wakeful resting.

[2025 수특영어: 31강 – 01]

Skilled clinicians pride themselves in their knowledge of diseases and treatments. Having an extensive command of anatomy and physiology, pharmacology, and the latest evidence-based breakthroughs is critical to providing competent care. But just as important is the knowledge of how illness can impact patient emotions. And although there is certainly room for individual variation, typical emotional reactions can often be anticipated. Having a sense of the normal emotions that accompany phases and stages of illness allows clinicians to think about how to incorporate the emotional domain into patient assessments and plans of care. Working with patients' emotions, from a place of understanding and acceptance, allows the clinician to skillfully address the emotions in a manner that best serves the patients' needs.

[2025 수특영어: 31강 – 02]

In medical sociology, a disease is considered an adverse physical state consisting of a physiological dysfunction within an individual, as compared to illness or sickness. In actual practice, the term disease is applied rather liberally to a wide variety of conditions that do not precisely fit the definition. One of the more controversial areas relates to mental illness. It could be argued that many, if not most, mental disorders would not be considered diseases under the definition above. The same could be said of other conditions that have been identified as "diseases" at various times. Examples include alcoholism and drug abuse. These conditions do not necessarily have the requisite clear-cut symptomatology and underlying biological pathology. They are nevertheless frequently treated as if they were diseases. One explanation for this is clear: In order for a condition to be treated by the healthcare system, it must be identified as a disease. Therefore, there is a tendency toward an overly broad conceptualization of disease.

[2025 수특영어: 31강 – 03]

Worldwide increases in IQ scores of about 3 points per decade over the last 100 years illustrate the potential for intellectual development. This increase in IQ scores, known as the Flynn effect, has occurred far too quickly to represent genetic changes. Improvements in nutrition and other health factors probably account for some of the change. Using information from the World Health Organization, researchers have identified strong correlations between a nation's freedom from serious infectious diseases and its citizens' average IQ scores. As nations become wealthier and more capable of battling disease, their citizens' IQ scores increase. Surprisingly, the test score gains are most pronounced in supposed culture-free tests such as the Raven's Progressive Matrices. Participants born after 1990 scored far better on these tests than did participants born in 1940. This change might reflect an improvement in the ability to manage dissimilar items that accompanies living in a modern society.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 01]

From Michael Jones, Chief Manager of FootCraft Shoes Factory To Eric Donovan, Team Leader of System Maintenance We are currently facing the challenge of maintaining our competitive edge in the rapidly evolving market environment. Therefore, the management team and I would like you to explore ways to address this challenge. Specifically, we are looking for a 25% increase in maintenance productivity within your work groups over the next three months. To get started, we would like you to meet with your team to discuss this assignment. Following the discussion, you should outline your thoughts on how to proceed and create a work plan. I would like to see your plan and review it with you in two weeks. This is a very important undertaking for our department and for the company. The management team and I look forward to seeing the innovative solutions you devise. Your contributions are invaluable to our success. Thank you.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 02]

Kira was playing with her doll when she heard a voice singing. "Churi, churi. Little girls, come and see." Kira ran to the window and saw a bangle seller with a basket on his head. He saw Kira and said, "Come little girl, come and buy some churis." She wanted to buy some, but she couldn't, because her mother had gone to the local market and there was no one there to give her money. Kira's heart sank at the thought of not being able to buy bangles. When she told the seller about her situation, he said, "Come and choose them at least. I'll take the money some other day." After thinking for a while, Kira went down. The bangle seller asked, "Child, which colour do you like best?" "Orange," said Kira and she selected some bangles. By then, Kira's mother returned from the market and had a few words with the seller before paying for the bangles. Kira was so glad. The sound of the bangles hitting each other sounded like music to her. She hummed her way back to her room.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 03]

There has been an effort by some economists to commodify ecosystem services, which refer to benefits and resources that humans obtain from natural ecosystems. Some ecosystem services are rival, such as the waste absorption capacity for greenhouse gases, so rationing is necessary. Making rationing possible requires excludable property rights, for example, through auctionable emission permits. If emissions are limited to absorption capacity and equitably distributed, commodification can be both sustainable and just. However, many ecosystem services are inherently non-excludable and non-rival and therefore cannot and should not be commodified. They should also not be ignored. Public services serve all members of the human community; economists recognize that these services are ill-suited to commodification and market allocation. Ecosystem services should not be defined as nature's benefits to people, but rather as fund-services that benefit all members of the biotic community, not simply humans. Ecosystem services in general are an even worse fit for commodification than public services.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 04]

If we think about our feelings as being part of us but not all that we are, then our feelings can feel more manageable. This idea is captured in this metaphor: you are the blue sky; your feelings are the weather. If you are the blue sky and your feelings are the weather, then just as the worst hurricane or tornado can't damage the blue sky, and it eventually ends, your feelings can't damage you, and eventually they will pass. Sometimes we just have to wait out the storm. Does that mean it's fun to live through a tornado or a rainstorm? Of course not! Is it easier to live your life when it's sunny and 80 degrees Fahrenheit compared to when it's rainy and stormy? Of course! But if I let the weather determine what I can get done, I'll forever be at the mercy of something I can't control. Our job is to make space for our feelings, to be the blue sky, so we don't have to engage in unhealthy habits to cope with our feelings and we can continue to do the things that matter to us.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 05]

In the lecture on memory, I ask my students to remember a list of words. It includes words like "dream" and "bed." Then I ask them to write down the words they remember. Invariably, they (mis)remember hearing the word "sleep" even though I never said the word "sleep." The idea of "sleep" is activated in the brain because other words in the same semantic network, words that have been associated with sleep through constant repetition, have also been activated. The word "sleep" is retrieved as if it were really heard. When people hear "bed," they cannot help but hear "sleep." When people hear "genes" or "intelligence" they cannot help but hear "race." A reader new to this topic might therefore be surprised to learn that there is zero evidence that genetics explains racial differences in outcomes like education. Currently, stories about genetically rooted racial differences in the complex human traits relevant for social inequality in modern industrialized economies ─ traits like persistence and conscientiousness and creativity and abstract reasoning ─ are just that. They are stories.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 06]

Simplifying a problem is what opens it up to mathematical analysis, so inevitably some biological details get lost in translation from the real world to the equations. As a result, those who use mathematics are frequently criticized as being too disinterested in those details. In his 1897 book Advice for a Young Investigator, Santiago Ramon y Cajal (the father of modern neuroscience) wrote about these reality-avoiding theorists in a chapter entitled 'Diseases of the Will'. He identified their symptoms as 'a facility for exposition, a creative and restless imagination, an aversion to the laboratory, and an indomitable dislike for concrete science and seemingly unimportant data'. Cajal also complained about the theorist's preference for beauty over facts. Biologists study living things that are abundant with specific traits and subtle exceptions to any rule. Mathematicians ― driven by simplicity, elegance and the need to make things manageable ─ silence that abundance when they put it into equations.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 07]

It's important to distinguish what humans are doing, in following norms, from what other animals are doing in their related patterns of behavior. An animal that decides not to pick a fight is, in most cases, simply worried about the risk of getting injured ― not about some abstract "norm against violence." Likewise, an animal that shares food with animals outside of its group is typically just trying to get future reciprocity ─ not following some "norm of food-sharing." The incentives surrounding true norms are more complex. When we do something "wrong," we have to worry about reprisal not just from the wronged party but also from third parties. Frequently, this means the entire rest of our local group, or at least a majority of it. Big strong Albert could easily steal from weak Bob without fearing trouble from Bob himself, but in human groups, Albert would then face punishment from the rest of the community. Collective enforcement, then, is the essence of norms. This is what enables the egalitarian political order so characteristic of the forager lifestyle.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 08]

Geoffrey Hinton was born in England in 1947. He chose to study psychology as an undergraduate at Cambridge because he wanted to explore his growing interest in neural networks. He quickly realized, however, that his professors didn't actually understand how neurons learned or computed. While the science of the day could explain the mechanics of electrical signals traveling from one neuron to another, no one could offer Hinton a compelling explanation for the emergence of intelligence from these billions of interactions. He felt certain he could better understand the workings of the brain using tools from the growing field of artificial neural networks, so he went on to pursue a doctor's degree in artificial intelligence from the University of Edinburgh in 1972. In his subsequent research, he sought to create interconnected layers of information using hardware and software, just as the human brain spreads information around its dense web of connected neurons. Throughout his career, Hinton has held positions at various institutions, including Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Toronto.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 09]

The above graph shows global plug-in vehicle sales from February 2020 to December 2022, represented by two-month intervals. In all three years, the sales were the least in February and the most in December. In 2021, each of the months showed an increase of more than 100,000 vehicles compared with the same month in 2020. In 2020, global sales of plug-in vehicles increased to more than 200,000 in June, and in December, they reached around 600,000. In 2021, global plug-in vehicle sales decreased from more than 600,000 in June to less than 600,000 in August, but then rose to more than 600,000 in October. In 2022, August saw a sales decrease from June, but sales increased to more than 1,000,000 in October.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 12]

From an evolutionary standpoint, ensuring the continuation of our species (specifically, our genetic descendants) is the meaning and purpose of life. But as intelligent animals, who can make decisions based on morality rather than biology, we could ask whether preserving our genome is worth any cost. Individual humans can and occasionally do make the choice to sacrifice their own lives in order to save the lives of other humans, or even non-human animals. But let's examine that choice, between biology and morality, on a global scale: What if preserving the human species means eliminating or abandoning all other life on Earth? What if it means humankind exists only in a state of misery and deprivation, in an eternally inhospitable and alien environment? This is not to argue that space settlement will definitely result in these worst-case scenarios, but rather to ask whether there is any imaginable case in which allowing or causing humans to become extinct is the more ethical choice.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 13]

In most business settings it is desirable to put competitors out of business. Naturally, fewer competitors mean more available customers. However, this is not always the case in sport. In fact, sport organizations that compete in leagues actually rely on the health of their competitors for their own success. For example, fans are often more attracted to a game where there is a close contest, and the winner is unknown in advance. Dominating a league or competition can be self-defeating, because the interest of fans can fade. When it is difficult to predict who will win a match, sport leagues attract higher attendances and viewers. Ironically, in order to remain successful, leagues and competitions need as many of their clubs to be competitive as possible. When the outcome of a match is highly predictable, it will not attract large crowd numbers and eventually it will reduce ticket, media and sponsorship revenue. It is important for sport that there is a healthy, competitive balance between teams. This leads to uncertainty about who will win a contest, and encourages fans to watch.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 14]

The fact that the young brain is in a constant state of absorption should give us pause. Regulations are in place to prevent certain types of companies from marketing directly to children. These are good measures, but they also provide a false sense of security. Why? Just like with language learning, young children don't need ads explicitly directed at them to learn about a product, or the consumer world in general. Think about ads on websites, TV, mobile, and social media, and in video games. Children are showered with repeated exposure to thousands of ads for hundreds of brands, and their spongy, malleable brains are constantly taking this information in. In a study, researchers discovered that kids are exposed to so many ads that they will have memorized three hundred to four hundred brands before their tenth birthday. Creepily, children grow up forming relationships with a select number of these brands that last well into the future, like friends you didn't know they had.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 15]

People often think that personality traits such as kindness are fixed. But our research with groups suggests something quite different: the tendency to be altruistic or exploitative may depend heavily on how the social world is organized. So if we took the same population of people and assigned them to one social world, we could make them really generous to one another, and if we put them in another sort of world, we could make them really mean or indifferent to one another. Crucially, this indicates that the tendency to cooperate is a property not only of individuals but also of groups. Cooperation depends on the rules governing the formation of friendship ties. Good people can do bad things (and vice versa) simply as a result of the structure of the network which they belong to, regardless of the convictions they hold or that the group shares. It is not just a matter of being connected to "bad" people; the number and pattern of social connections is also crucial. Aspects of the social suite, such as cooperation and social networks, work together.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 16]

Our natural survival instinct is to seek comfort in temperatures that keep us around 68 to 72 degrees Fahrenheit (20-22.2'C). By getting outside of this comfort zone and stressing the cellular functioning of the body either by using heat and cold in the same session or focusing on one temperature extreme, we strengthen our physiological systems. We lower our daily breathing rate, improve our muscle tissue, and raise our threshold for handling stress. Evidence shows that we are at our best ─ physically harder, mentally tougher, and spiritually sounder ─ after experiencing the same discomforts our early ancestors were exposed to every day. The lack of temperature change caused by indoor lifestyles and misalignment with nature has taken us far from our ancestorial upbringing, and it continues to weaken the nervous system. By intentionally placing ourselves into the heat or cold, we become our best physically, mentally, and even spiritually.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 17]

Suppose a child plays at make-believe. She barks, crawls on all fours, and says, "I'm a puppy!" In order to make the claim, her brain must construct the key proposition "I'm a puppy" as well as contain the information that puppies bark and walk on all fours. And yet that information exists in a larger context. Her brain contains a vast net of information, including "I'm not really a puppy," "I'm making it up to play a game," "I'm a little girl," and so on. Some of that information is present at a cognitive and linguistic level. Much of it is at a deeper, sensory or perceptual level. Her body schema is constructed automatically, beneath higher cognition, and it describes the physical layout of a human body, not a puppy body. She sees her human hands in front of her, and the visual information confirms her human identity. She remembers eating breakfast cereal with a spoon, going to school, reading a book ― all human activities. The claim "I'm a puppy" is a superficial proposition that is inconsistent with her deepest internal models.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 18]

Your children establish their social comfort and skills early in their lives by observing you in your own social life and through the social experiences they have. These first social experiences become the defaults that will guide and shape the quality and quantity of their relationships throughout their lives. Genetics clearly has an influence on these defaults; research has demonstrated that children are born with a certain temperament, including where they lie on the continuum of introversion to extraversion. But, as the saying goes, "genetics are not destiny"; the messages that your children get from you early in their lives about how they should interact with others will influence how their genetic predispositions will be expressed. In this interaction of genes and upbringing, your children will develop social defaults that trigger social ease, connectedness, and healthy relationships, or social anxiety, loneliness, and dysfunctional relationships.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 19]

When different cultures meet, whether at the societal level or in the company, ideas about how things should be done often clash. To resolve it, we typically make the assumption that others should change to be more like us. And we can enforce this view because we are in power ― either as the boss in an organization or as the dominant culture in a country. But assuming that the dominant person or country has the right rules and the right way is, in itself, anathema to innovating. Self-satisfied people are not good innovators. So when you ask people to do something not consistent with their cultural background, ask yourself whether you should be rethinking your assumptions about what works best. For example, free-flowing talk is usually considered the hallmark of a good meeting. Everybody just jumps in whenever they have a thought. However, in some cultures, this is considered rude and pushy, so some people with excellent ideas may not speak up. One solution might be to strengthen their group skills but other methods are to occasionally ask everyone to express an opinion in turn, ask for ideas in writing, or table an idea on someone else's behalf.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 20]

Like some strange alien creature extending tentacles, each neuron is simultaneously connected to up to thousands of other neurons. It is the combined activity of information coming in that determines whether a neuron is active or not. When the sum of this activity reaches a tipping point, the neuron fires, discharging a small chemical electrical signal and setting off a chain reaction in its connections. In effect, each neuron is a bit like a microprocessor because it computes the combined activity of all the other neurons it is connected to. It's a bit like spreading a rumor in a neighborhood. Some of your neighboring neurons are excitatory and, like good friends, want to help spread the word. Other neurons are inhibitory and basically tell you to shut up. And every time the neuron has such a conversation with its different neighbors or long-distance pals, it remembers the message either to spread the word or be silent, so that when the rumor comes round again, the neuron responds with more certainty. This is because the connections between the neurons have become strengthened by repeatedly firing together.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 21]

Conventional economics uses the phrase "factors of production." Factors of production are the inputs into a production process necessary to create any output. For example, when you make a pizza, you need a cook, a kitchen with an oven, and the raw ingredients. If you think about it carefully, however, you will clearly see that the cook and kitchen are different in some fundamental ways from the raw ingredients. The cook and kitchen are approximately the same after making the pizza as before, though just a bit more worn out. The raw ingredients, however, are used up, transformed first into the pizza itself, then rapidly thereafter into waste. The cook and kitchen are not physically embodied in the pizza, but the raw ingredients are. Thousands of years ago, Aristotle discussed this important distinction and divided causation (factors) into material cause, that which is transformed, and efficient cause, that which causes the transformation without itself being transformed in the process. Raw ingredients are the material cause, and the cook and kitchen are the efficient cause.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 22]

A society needs to raise children to replace its members who die, or the society would disappear over a couple of generations. One could, therefore, think of the production of children as a positive externality. Those who do not have children benefit from the child-rearing labors of those who do; they enjoy a society of varied ages in which to live as they grow older, and a labor force of younger people is available to support them in their retirement. Should all then share in the economic costs of raising the children? In the United States, the cost of educating children is borne collectively through the system of public education, but most other costs of raising children are treated as private costs of the parents. In about half of the world's states, however, the full society assumes some of the responsibility for all costs of child rearing by giving direct grants to families with children. These grants are often pegged to the median income of workers in the country: the government might give 10 percent of the country's median income to any family with two children, for example.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 23]

Primates are capable of sophisticated forms of reasoning in naturalistic settings, especially when their food ― or position in the social hierarchy ― is in danger. However, it is unclear how versatile their relational reasoning might be. In the 1940s, the primatologist Harry Harlow made an interesting discovery. In a series of experiments, monkeys learnt to choose between two visual objects, one of which was rewarded and one was not. Harlow noted with surprise that each time the task was restarted with two entirely novel objects, the monkeys learnt slightly faster. In fact, their performance continued to accelerate over hundreds of new object sets, until eventually the monkeys could respond almost perfectly from the second trial onwards. Harlow argued that over the course of repeated pairings, the monkeys had learnt how to learn. It seems that the monkeys learnt something abstract about the relations between the two stimuli in each pairing ― that if one was rewarded, the other was not. By generalizing this knowledge to new pairings, they could learn ever faster. Human children tested in a comparable fashion showed the same ability.

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 24~25]

In the 1930s, the English psychologist Sir Frederic Bartlett proposed that we gradually build up our knowledge of the world from events we experience, and that these experiences are then clustered in organized mental structures he called "schemata." In turn, these schemata (or "schemas") are used to help us understand new experiences and form frameworks in which to remember them. One potential downside of this arrangement is that it is relatively difficult for us to understand and remember information and events that do not fit our current schemata. One of Bartlett's classic demonstrations was to present an unusual North American folktale to an English university student to learn and recall. The student's written recall differed from the original by being shorter and omitting a number of details. This first student's written recall was then given to a second student to learn and recall with the result that more unusual details were dropped out of his reproduction, but other details were added, apparently to make the story more coherent and comprehensible to English ears. This procedure was repeated until a series of ten students had learned the previous reproduction and produced their own versions. By the end of the series, the reproductions were much shorter, the supernatural details in the original had been lost, and the whole tale was closer to the experience of English university students in the 1930s. This demonstration thus illustrates the constructive nature of remembering, and the effects of beliefs and attitudes on recollection and understanding. Gossip serves as a commonplace example that is similar to Bartlett's findings, with a story progressively changing as it travels across tellings. To return to metaphors for a moment, human memory is not like a tape recorder!

[2025 수특영어: Test 01 – 26~28]

Mary, a young violist, played a slow sarabande by Bach during a presentation Theresa Adams made at the Music Educators National Conference in San Antonio, Texas. The piece requires sustained control of the bow arm, a warm tone, and precise pitch. Being very shy, Mary was noticeably self-conscious playing before this large gathering of educators. While rehearsing for the performance, she had a very hard time controlling her anxiety. Mary had difficulty keeping her bow from shaking, and her tone was thin and scratchy. Theresa could see that Mary had a warm feeling for the music she was playing but that she felt too inhibited to express it. Theresa spoke to Mary privately for a few moments so that the audience wouldn't know what instruction she had given to Mary. Theresa asked Mary who her favorite Bach violist was, and she replied that it was Martha Katz and she wanted to play the sarabande like her. Theresa then instructed Mary to imagine there was a video camera above the stage taping her performance. Theresa told Mary it didn't matter whether she played out of tune or missed notes or had poor tone. All that mattered was that she should look the way Martha Katz looked while playing Bach. Theresa told Mary the camera was only recording the way she looked, and that her sound would be replaced by a CD of her role model playing the same piece. Since Mary no longer had to worry about how she played, she felt free to throw herself into the role of Martha Katz during the playing session. She not only looked confident, relaxed, and dignified ─ she also played with bow control, accuracy, and fine phrasing. She effectively "became" Martha Katz as she performed the Bach sarabande. The audience was shocked by her playing and curious to know what instructions Theresa had given her that had produced such a marked effect. And Mary realized that although she had been imagining she was Martha Katz, she was still the one playing the viola.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 01]

Dear Mr. Cole, Thank you for your offer of the pharmacist position. The position is attractive to me because I have a strong passion for healthcare and a desire to make a positive impact on patients' lives. As I indicated in our last interview, however, I was disappointed to learn that your company would not be in a position to reimburse tuition costs for my ongoing study toward a Doctor of Pharmacy degree, currently a primary professional goal of mine. On March 14, I was offered another position by a company whose benefits package includes tuition reimbursement. Because I expect these costs to be substantial in the next two years, I have decided to accept this position. I sincerely appreciate the time you have taken and the special interest you have shown in me during the interview. Thank you again for your consideration. Best regards, Julie Robinson

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 02]

One day, Captain Hall, the famous Arctic explorer, went in a small boat to visit a certain island which he wanted to explore. The boat was fastened to a piece of rock on the shore. When he returned from his expedition, he discovered the tide had risen and floated his boat, which was quite out of reach. Captain Hall feared the extreme danger in which he was placed. The boat was the only connecting link between him and the living world, and it was beyond his reach. What was to be done? To swim towards the boat was out of the question in such a climate. He did the only thing that seemed possible. He unwound the thongs that fastened his boots to create a line about twenty feet long. He attached a heavy stone to its end and threw it into the boat, pulling the boat to the shore. It was with unspeakable comfort that Captain Hall once more entered it and felt he was saved from inevitable starvation ─ saved by a shoe-string!

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 03]

Think about the changes that have taken place in our world over the past 100 years. The first to come to mind are probably the spectacular scientific and technological achievements of the past century ─ motor vehicles, aircraft, the telephone, radio and TV, computers and genetic engineering. Each new development creates its own demand for legal change. Consider, for example, the vast body of law which has grown up around the motor vehicle: there are regulations governing such matters as the construction and maintenance of motor vehicles, the conduct of drivers on the road and even where vehicles may be parked. Indeed, almost half of the criminal cases tried by magistrates' courts are directly related to the use of motor vehicles. The increasing volume of traffic on the roads and the resulting inexorable rise in traffic accidents have also led to developments in the civil law, especially in the areas of the law of tort and insurance.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 04]

Sometimes pursuing the truth about some question would be morally worse than not pursuing it. This may be because, as in the case of nuclear weapons research, the answer itself may prove dangerous or harmful. But it may also be because the manner of pursuing that truth is dangerous or harmful, or simply morally wrong independently of its consequences. Consider the Nazi or Tuskegee experiments: it is not the information pursued that is morally bad here, but the manner in which that information is pursued. And we need not resort to such dramatic cases. The National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation heavily monitor contemporary scientific research that involves any sort of experiment involving human subjects. In cases where the only way in which we can obtain certain scientific information is harmful to other people, we generally feel ─ rightly ─ that the information is not worth pursuing, all things considered. So in deciding whether to pursue a particular line of inquiry, we must first determine whether pursuing that line might conflict with our other values, moral or otherwise.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 05]

As parents, we spend countless hours debating on the freedoms we should allow our children. Too much freedom may lead to mischief while not enough may stifle their growth. How much should be allowed? I am always reminded of a circus elephant when in a discussion on freedom. When the elephant is a baby, it learns restriction by being tethered to a small stake with a four-foot piece of chain. The elephant is trained to know that its individual freedom is restricted to that small four feet. As the elephant grows stronger and larger, it still thinks that it has no more freedom outside of those four feet. Although the power to move that stake and run free is immense, it will not attempt to break the stake or the chains because of what it perceives as being able to. Are you a victim of your own restraints as well? Do you not move beyond your four feet circle because you think you are not allowed to? Be bold. Step outside your circle and see if you can grow. Without breakthroughs, there cannot be change.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 06]

The most effective way to defuse racial ideology is to bring people from different ethnic backgrounds together under conditions that enable them to deal with one another as individuals and discover that ideologies obscure important aspects of people and the realities of their lives. However, this is difficult when teachers, coaches and employers maintain a belief in the myth of black natural physical talent and a lack of cognitive skills. Social scientist Ellis Cashmore illustrates this with an experience of receiving a telephone call from a black journalist writing for a major newspaper. The journalist asked why no one actually expressed what he believed to be an absolute truth: that black athletes have a 'natural edge'. The very fact that a talented black journalist believed this defective theory is evidence to its power and the difficulties in escaping expectations based on racial ideology. When such myths maintain credibility in society, black people are regarded as unsuited to, or unwanted for, study, work and other activities that demand mental rather than physical skills.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 07]

Negotiators can make options more palatable by enhancing the attractiveness of accepting them. This is a matter of placing emphasis on the positive rather than the negative. In the language of traditional carrot-and-stick tactics for motivating workers, the approach should make the carrot more attractive rather than enlarging the stick. Promises and offers can be made more attractive in several ways: maximizing the attractive qualities and minimizing the negative ones, showing how the offer meets the other party's needs, reducing the disadvantages of accepting the offer, making offers more credible by providing third-party references or factual support, or setting deadlines on offers so they expire if not accepted quickly. Many would argue that these are common sales tricks similar to discount coupons, two-for-the-price-of-one offers, "today only" sales, and extra-added-attraction elements. They are! Negotiators can and should use the same techniques that salespeople use to move their products.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 08]

Benny Goodman is one of the greatest clarinetists of all time. Born in 1909 in Chicago, he began taking lessons at the age of 10. With a natural inborn talent, he made rapid progress and was soon playing professionally. He was strongly influenced by New Orleans jazz, and it played an important role in his music throughout his life. At 16, he joined the Ben Pollack Orchestra in Chicago, which at the time was one of the top bands in the United States. He was soon making recordings, and it wasn't long before he formed his own band. Although Goodman was relatively well known before 1935, it was the change in his style that occurred in the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles that really caused his career to take off. And a few years later, he was playing in Carnegie Hall in New York City. At the time, this was something new for a jazz orchestra. The concert was a tremendous success. After years of appealing only to specialized audiences, jazz had finally broken through and was being accepted by mainstream audiences.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 09]

The graph above shows the share (%) of American adults in each income tier by age group in 1971 and 2021. Among American adults ages 18 to 29, the share in the upper-income tier increased by 5 percentage points from 1971 to 2021, whereas their share in the middle-income tier decreased by 12 percentage points during the same period. Among the 1971 middle-income tiers, the share of American adults ages 30 to 44 was higher than that of any other age group. In 1971, more than two-thirds of American adults ages 45 to 64 were in the middle-income tier, and in 2021, more than half of the people in that age group were in the same income tier. The share of American adults ages 65 and older in the lower-income tier fell from 54% in 1971 to 37% in 2021, while their share in the middle income tier rose from 39% to 47% during the same period. However, American adults 65 and older were the only age group in which more than one-in-three adults were in the lower-income tier in 2021.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 12]

In the worldview of the Cree hunter, humans do not control the hunt. The fish and game are not there simply to be taken. Rather it is the animals who control the success of the hunt by offering themselves willingly to people (or, conversely, choosing to withhold themselves from a hunter). The Cree credit animals with knowing the same things that people know and being able to communicate and share that knowledge with people. Humans and animals are in a relationship of reciprocity, just as humans are in relationship with other humans. Indeed, anthropologists argue even more generally that in all cultures, including those that are modern and postmodern, there are profound connections between the ways that people engage with each other and with other species.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 13]

Stay-at-home parents have new employment options in our internet economy. Over the last few decades many women have been self-employed. Such an arrangement gives them greater flexibility over their hours and days of work. The rise of remote work could further increase opportunities for them. Internet platforms such as Withinwork are two-sided platforms as workers seeking employment post their resumes and employers seeking workers post their tasks. Artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms play a key matchmaking role here by gathering and presenting the set of job opportunities a person sees. I set up my profile on Withinwork and was impressed with the alternative tasks that I was offered by the AI. As with any two-sided matching platform, the more job offerings an applicant sees, the more likely that person will find value in the platform. In this sense, as remote work grows as a socially high-status activity, this process will gain its own momentum.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 14]

Considerable debate exists as to the appropriate beneficiaries of affirmative action. In the United States, supporters of affirmative action hoped that, by expanding the coverage to apply to many minority groups, they would broaden the political base favoring such programs. In practice, however, the wider coverage has diluted, in the minds of some, the moral argument in favor of a program intended to help the most obvious victims of governmental discrimination: African Americans and Native Americans. Some argue that the context matters. Thus, because Asian Americans and women are generally not under-represented among university student bodies, affirmative action admissions for them would now be inappropriate (though they should not be singled out for restrictions). On the other hand, among corporate executives or university faculties, blacks, Asians, Latinos, and women all faced exclusion in the past and remain under-represented today; therefore, in these areas all four groups ought to be beneficiaries of affirmative action.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 15]

Predictions of technological unemployment have recurred since the onset of the Industrial Revolution. But the recurring reality was one of economic growth through creative destruction. Yes, machines destroyed lots of jobs, often with devastating effects on displaced workers for whom new jobs were often too late or out of reach. Over time, however, job destruction freed up labor and capital that went into new and usually better jobs and higher incomes. That is because technology both substitutes for labor ─ in particular, less-skilled labor ─ and complements labor, or makes it more productive, thus generating new demand for labor. Casual observers have often tended "to overstate the extent of machine substitution for human labor," which was readily observable; they "repeatedly underestimated the demand for the work of human beings that would remain."

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 16]

The most common situation in which musical equipment becomes an instrument is in live performance. Playing the piano is generally associated with performance in real-time, and computer-based musical instruments are increasingly being played in real-time. For example, laptop computers are increasingly used in performance by live electronic musicians even in preference to keyboard synthesizers, groove boxes, and turntables. One thing that changes in computer performances is that the gestural relationship with sound is sometimes less direct. In acoustic instrument performance the musician's gestures are translated into sound. Many instruments have a one-to-one gesture-to-sound relationship, including the press of the piano or synthesizer key, or the slide of the finger of the guitar fretboard; each translates gesture into a direct audible result. Many electronic and computer-based instruments have a one-to-many gesture-to-sound relationship when a mouse gesture or parameter movement changes the complexity of a rhythmic part, or the timbre and volume of an entire ensemble of musical voices.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 17]

Two Northwestern University marketing researchers, David Gal and Derek Rucker, conducted research using framing techniques to make people feel uncertain. For example, they told one group to remember a time when they were full of certainty, and the other group to remember a time when they were full of doubt. Then they asked the participants whether they were meat eaters, vegetarians, vegans, or otherwise, how important this was to them, and how confident they were in their opinions. People who were asked to remember a time of uncertainty were less confident of their eating choices. However, when asked to write their beliefs to persuade someone else to eat the way they did, they would write more and stronger arguments than those who were certain of their choice. Gal and Rucker performed the research with different topics (for example, preferences for a Mac versus a Windows computer) and found similar results. When people were less certain, they would dig in and argue even harder.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 18]

In the same way that it is sometimes advisable to take a momentary break, or "fast," from some of our food, beverages, and habits, a media fast may be good for your system. Spending a set period of time unplugged can clarify for you the advantages and disadvantages of your media practices. Life without electronic devices momentarily separates you from constant distraction, online advertisements, and artificial blue light. You'll have more time for other things, like physical activity, face-to-face interaction, and even solitude. You'll also have the opportunity to reflect critically on how life in the Communication Age differs from older modes of living and connecting and engaging with the world.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 19]

To the extent that one can distinguish self-esteem from public esteem, the latter seems to be more important. The overriding motive of narcissists seems to be to obtain social approval from others. That is, they spend much of their time and energy seeking ways to get others to admire them. In terms of being liked by others rather than admired, they are somewhat indifferent. That is, narcissists are no more nor less interested than anyone else in being liked. Being admired, however, is extremely important to them. In general, they do not seem overly concerned with proving something to themselves (possibly because they are already privately persuaded of their own good qualities), but they are quite interested in demonstrating their superiority to others. For example, if given a chance to tackle a difficult task and find out how good they are, narcissists put forth minimal effort if no one is looking, which is a sign that they do not really care about demonstrating their brilliance to themselves, whereas if others are watching, they put forth maximum effort in order to shine.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 20]

One obvious area where climbing and philosophy intersect is with regard to the normative dimension of climbing ― the ethical or unethical behavior of climbers. Some of the ethical issues in climbing involve a straightforward extension of more general moral principles. For example, it is wrong to lie about your climbing accomplishments because it is generally wrong to lie about accomplishments; it is wrong to needlessly endanger others at the cliff because, more generally, it is always wrong to needlessly endanger others. However, other ethical issues involve factors that are unique to climbing and thus cannot be resolved by invoking broader moral rules. Is it wrong to place bolts on rappel? Is it cheating to use pre-placed gear on a traditional pitch? For these sorts of questions, broader moral rules do not apply in any straightforward way, and climbers must work out for themselves what is right or wrong within the context of climbing.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 21]

Sensation and perception almost always happen together. Researchers, however, have studied each process separately to determine how the two work together. Perception can occur through bottom-up processing, which begins with the physical stimuli from the environment, and proceeds through transduction of those stimuli into neural impulses. The signals are passed along to successively more complex brain regions, and ultimately result in the recognition of a visual stimulus. For example, when you look at the face of your best friend, your eyes convert light energy into neural impulses, which travel into the brain to visual regions. This information forms the basis for sensing the visual stimulus and ultimately its perception. Equally important to perception, however, is top-down processing, which involves previously acquired knowledge. As a result, when you look at your best friend's face, brain regions that store information about what faces look like, particularly those that are familiar to you, can help you to perceive and recognize the specific visual stimulus.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 22]

The European Union, since the late 1990s, has embraced gender mainstreaming as its main strategy for addressing gender inequality in policy making. It is defined as the integration of the gender perspective into every stage of the policy process (design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation). Gender mainstreaming is based on the understanding that all policies have the potential to impact social and demographic groups differently, thus creating and sustaining unequal power relations. For example, gender mainstreaming may explicitly consider the experiences of men, such as parental leave as a legal claim for men or labor policies for men in female-dominated occupations (e.g., nursing). Gender mainstreaming can also apply to health care, equally promoting women's and men's health care needs. In many countries, coronary heart disease is defined through a masculine lens, influencing all areas of medical care from prevention to recovery. Not only does this lead to overlooking women's heart health needs, but it also may negatively impact men who do not seem to fit the model of hegemonic masculinity.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 23]

Although a traditional textbook drawing suggests that neurons in the brain are happily packed next to one another like jelly beans in a jar, don't let the cartoon fool you: neurons are locked in competition for survival. Just like neighboring nations, neurons stake out their territories and persistently defend them. They fight for territory and survival at every level of the system: each neuron and each connection between neurons fights for resources. As the border wars rage through the lifetime of a brain, maps are redrawn in such a way that the experiences and goals of a person are always reflected in the brain's structure. If an accountant drops her career to become a pianist, the neural territory devoted to her fingers will expand; if she becomes a microscopist, her visual cortex will develop higher resolution for the small details she seeks; if she becomes a perfumer, her brain regions assigned to smell will enlarge.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 24~25]

In Singapore, due to road pricing, one can always expect to be able to achieve a speed of 40 miles per hour on the road. While the rich are more likely to afford this, buses can also achieve these speeds, and with the economies of scale of a bus this lowers the per-person trip price for achieving this speed. The full cost of commuting includes not only the out-of-pocket expenditure on gasoline, parking, and road use fees but the value of the lost time. If a commute takes thirty minutes rather than fifteen minutes because of traffic congestion, then the commuter has lost fifteen minutes. Economists have adopted the rule of thumb of valuing such lost time by half of the person's hourly wage. For example, if I earn $80 an hour and I lose fifteen minutes stuck in traffic, then this costs me $10 in lost time (.25 x 80 x .5). To conserve on such lost time due to congestion, cities such as Stockholm, London, and Singapore have adopted road pricing. Drivers in such cities move at higher speeds and save time but must pay more money out of pocket to travel at peak use times. One explanation for why so few cities have adopted road pricing focuses on behavioral economics: people are used to the roads being free. To an economist, this is a puzzling explanation because congested roads cost us valuable time. This time cost means that free roads are not free to use. A second explanation for the opposition to road pricing is that many poor people drive and they prefer to pay for their commute using their time rather than paying a road use fee.

[2025 수특영어: Test 02 – 26~28]

One hot afternoon, little William and his dad were passing through a dusty village road. It was a dry season, so little William thought the whole village road looked lonely and deserted. After walking for a long while, he asked his dad to stop somewhere for a short rest. Looking around, little William and his dad could not find a comfortable place to relax. Unable to find anywhere to rest, they were forced to keep walking under the hot bright sun. After a few minutes' walk, little William and his dad saw a huge coconut tree far off in the distance that could provide shade from the burning sun, so they started walking faster to reach the tree. "Dad, why don't you race me to the tree?" little William asked his dad. After letting out a short smile, he agreed to the race and, at the count of three, he watched little William take off like a runner. Unknowingly to little William, his dad let him win. He jumped for joy because he reached the huge coconut tree first. Little William and his dad breathed a deep sigh of relief because they were so exhausted from walking all day. They dropped all that they had with them on the ground and lay down under the huge coconut tree, which protected them from the sun. And they embraced the cool breeze in the air. Then, they began to feel hungry. Little William looked up towards the huge coconut tree and said, "This huge coconut tree is useless. It doesn't have any coconuts we can eat." "My dear little William," his dad responded, "it is not good to be ungrateful to people and things around us. This tree, which you are calling useless, saved us from the hot sun." Little William gently stood from where he lay and turned towards the tree. He thanked it for protecting them from the sun. The coconut tree began to give little William and his dad a more pleasant wind.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 01]

Dear Members, Thank you for always supporting our park's efforts to improve our community's health and social bonds. As we have announced, construction at Lions Park will begin as soon as the spring season allows. As an alternative place to play pickleball in town this summer, the lines for three pickleball courts will be painted on the blacktop surface at Rose Park, located at 201 Green Valley Road. The blue equipment bin with portable nets and extra balls from Lions Park will be relocated there as well. The combination to unlock the bin can be obtained by calling the front desk at the community center. If you have any questions regarding the alternative pickleball courts, please contact Mark Perkins at mperkins@ShakopeeMN.gov. We look forward to the completion of the new dedicated pickleball courts at Lions Park this summer. Sincerely, Mark Perkins

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 02]

I should have guessed things were not going to go well when I stepped off the train at Weston Station and there was no sign of my father. I was only fifteen, and there was no way I could go back home if he didn't show up. I wandered up and down the platform. The waiting felt like forever, and I began to anxiously wonder if something bad had happened to him. After a while, one of the station employees approached me and asked me if I was all right. I said I was fine, but inside, my concern was growing. Then I glanced to the left and noticed my dad. At that very moment, all my anxieties disappeared. 'Dad!' I shouted. I snatched my little bag from the floor and ran to him. 'Sorry to keep you waiting, Son,' he said, ruffling my hair and pulling me close to him. 'Let's go home.' He smiled, and I returned his smile with an even bigger one.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 03]

Urban agriculture is moving from just a practice for earning an income and small food-producing activities to a more sustainable practice that focuses on promoting local food production as an energy-saving resource that is central to creating vital urban communities. It needs to become even more central to city planning as food security and food safety become issues that cities need to address along with the increase in population that is creating a strain on a global level with regards to food availability and health. In current practice, the term urban agriculture does not necessarily mean that food production itself is based on a sustainable methodology or procedure but when combined with an ecological-based approach it does. With the recognition of natural resource decline and the advance of environmental degradation in cities today, urban agriculture is taking on new meaning in bringing ecological-based systems back into the city as a vital part of the solution to creating more sustainable cities. This does require a paradigm shift in thinking about food as an integral part of the city's framework.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 04]

There is a tendency in some parents to treat small children as if they are much older. It seems as if they want to give the impression that their child is mature beyond his age. They ask a small child to make decisions about matters he is too young to decide. When a child is put in this situation, sometimes he will do what the parent wants him to do, and sometimes he will simply say, "No." This is his attempt to show his authority and to display his power. A small child should never be asked to make a decision he is too young to make. The parent should make the decision and then give instructions to the child. For example, if a parent thinks that a child should stop playing and eat, he should not ask the child, "Do you want to eat now?" He should tell the child to put his toys away and get ready to eat. If he thinks that the child should take a nap, he should not ask the child, "Do you want to take a nap?" He should tell the child that it is time for his nap.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 05]

I think of neuroscience and the human sciences as like two very small miners energetically tunnelling in from opposite sides of an immense Alp. Although neuroscientists on their side of the Alp do not listen much to sounds of digging from the humanists on the other side, some humanists, those concerned with the brain's role in the arts, listen very closely to what the neuroscientists on the other side are saying. We draw hopefully on a great many researchers. We hope for answers from them to the questions that bother us. The neuroscientists and we of the human sciences, even if we are divided into two groups, share the same hope. Although dwarfed by the mountain, we hope our diggings will meet in the middle of that huge Alp, and there we will discover this mysterious, magical treasure, Mind. We hope.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 06]

Modern broadcast media may have contributed to the perpetuation of the innate talent account of musical performance ability. The discovery of an exceptional child performer ─ "the next Mozart" is a common label ― makes for a much better story than reporting how advanced musical learning has resulted from an unusually plentiful combination of environmental, educational, and economic factors. Beyond simple media sensationalism, however, the belief in talent offers other appealing effects. Giving the musically talented person the designation of specialness can turn the experience of a concert into a fantastic, even supernatural, happening. Plus, musicians themselves can benefit from the "gifted" label. Feeling special ― or even divinely blessed ― can contribute to musicians' self-esteem and motivation; consequently, many "talented" musicians feel an obligation to nurture their gift, which allows them to approach their musical activities with confidence and the expectation of success.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 07]

Many have observed that people often use mobile phones in waiting areas. It is a way to kill time but it is also a way to create a space within what is often a weak or poorly defined space. Spaces at the edge of a dead zone for making mobile calls are also prime spots for making calls or sending texts. So, when people touch down at an airport or leave a tunnel after having been out of contact with a cell tower, they are more likely to make calls or send texts. The mobile phone can be used to share a space with someone at a distance, for example, people at a concert who call others so they can hear part (or all) of the concert. At the extreme, people may be so immersed in the interaction with others on a mobile phone, that they lose contact with those in the physical space they occupy. Sherry Turkle calls this alone together; others have used the term absent presence to characterize this behavior.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 08]

W. E. B. DuBois (1868-1963), an African American sociologist, graduated from Fisk University in Tennessee and became the first African American to receive a doctorate from Harvard University. Then, at Atlanta University, he founded the nation's second department of sociology. He soon began a highly productive academic career that included, among many other things, founding two scholarly journals and writing numerous books and articles. He focused his research and writing on the racial problems in the United States. At the same time, however, he worked hard to apply his enormous knowledge to improving society. He founded the Niagara Movement, an organization of African American intellectuals fighting for racial equality. He also helped create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and edited its influential magazine, Crisis. Later, he even advocated the use of force to achieve racial equality. Finally, seeing little improvement in race relations, he moved in 1961 to the African nation of Ghana, where he died 2 years later.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 09]

The charts above show the percentage of women who worked in major behind-the-scenes roles in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films from 2015 to 2021 and the percentage of those women in 2021 by role. Compared to 2015, the percentage of women who worked in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films was lower in 2016 and 2017, but it was higher in 2018. In 2021, the percentage of women who worked in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films accounted for a quarter of the total. In the same year, the percentage of female executive producers in these films was lower than that of female producers. While the share of female directors and writers in the 250 highest-grossing U.S. films in 2021 stood at 17 percent each, 22 percent of all editors were female. In the same year, among the major behind-the-scenes roles, cinematographers had the lowest percentage of women, at less than a third of the percentage of women who worked as writers.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 12]

We are so easily impressed and make judgements based on superficial evidence, but sometimes luxury provides a psychological boost to confidence that improves our well-being. Wearing designer clothes can make us feel better about ourselves, which then becomes self-reinforcing. When we put on our luxury clothes we feel special and behave accordingly. Luxury goods light up the pleasure centres in our brain. If you think you are drinking expensive wine, not only does it taste better but the brain's valuation system associated with the experience of pleasure shows greater activation, compared to drinking exactly the same wine when you believe it to be cheap. What's important here is the belief ─ not the actual luxury. Francesca Gino, a professor at Harvard Business School, found that people who wore what they believed to be fake designer brand sunglasses (but were in fact genuine) felt like frauds and were more likely to cheat on tests. You may be able to fake until you make it, but deep down, if we do, many of us feel like imposters.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 13]

Overfishing is in large part a consequence of excessive effort and capacity in fisheries. Too often, fishery managers have been unable to control fishing effort, resulting in unsustainable levels of catch. This has been a particular problem for open-access fisheries where management does not limit the number of participants or high individual effort. In this situation, the economic incentives favor short-term exploitation over long-term sustainable use because the economic benefits of sacrificing current catch to rebuild the stock are hard to perceive compared to short-term needs (bills to be paid), and long-term benefits may have to be shared with newcomers when the fishery recovers. As more people enter the fishery or improve their fishing capabilities, the future yield to the individual fisher decreases. This often fosters competition to maintain or even increase individual catch levels even as stocks decline. In response, managers may shorten fishing seasons; participants then increase their fishing power, and effort becomes concentrated in time, sometimes resulting in "races for fish" or "fishing derbies."

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 14]

Typically, homework consists of any assigned task slated to be done outside the hours of class. What the word homework does not describe is the quality or quantity of the task, a reality that makes homework discussions challenging because it turns into a war of vocabulary. For example, if two people discuss their children's homework, one could be railing against mindless worksheets while the other is in favor of carefully crafted activities prompting students to reflect or create. But instead of naming the specific activity, they both refer to the tasks simply as "homework." And so one parent wonders why on earth anyone would be a proponent of (mindless) homework while the other can't understand why a parent wouldn't want their child to do (relevant and creative) work at home. Neither parent understands the other's point of view because they aren't speaking the same language about homework.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 15]

American sociologist William Julius Wilson has argued that an unintended consequence of African American suburbanization has been that inner cities have lost valuable role models. As higher income minorities leave center cities, young people who remain are less likely to see and interact with adult men who work and have achieved upward income mobility. Research in development economics has documented, with data from the Dominican Republic, that when young people are informed about the wage gains that are possible by obtaining more education, this information increases their educational attainment. The explanation for this is that young people are more likely to underestimate the economic benefits of education when they never interact with people who look like them and have also attained a high level of education. The suburbanization of upwardly mobile people thus has social consequences for peer effects in the inner city.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 16]

Because advertisers in the 1950s were interested in reaching baby boomers, many radio stations played music called rock 'n' roll with disc jockeys that specifically called out to them. Other stations targeted different age groups with different styles of music and DJs. This new sort of station that focused on particular music preferences caught on because radio was now more portable than ever. The development in 1948 of the transistor, a much smaller replacement for the Audion vacuum tube, led to the miniaturization of radio receivers. Now radio became something that people could literally take with them throughout the day ─ to the park, to the beach, or wherever. All of a sudden, the medium had a new life, and companies rushed to get new licenses. The number of stations jumped dramatically, from about one thousand in 1946 to nearly 3,500 in the mid-1950s. The largest proportion of these played specific types of music.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 17]

In a study by Arthur Aron and myself, we created a fake computer dating service, but instead of romance, the goal was to help college students find friendship. All the subjects listed their interests, and we returned a week later to ask them to review a profile written by another person and judge whether they liked and wanted to meet them. Half of them were told that our ultra-reliable, matchmaker program determined that this new person was an ideal match for them. The other half weren't told anything. When people weren't given any information about whether a friendship was likely, they preferred people with interests just like theirs. But when they were told that a friendship was likely, they preferred people who complemented them with different interests. That is, when people were confident that a relationship was possible, they wanted to spend time with people who were unique, interesting, and who offered a chance for them to expand their horizons.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 18]

Many of our activities (arguing, solving problems, budgeting time, etc.) are metaphorical in nature. The metaphorical concepts that characterize those activities structure our present reality. New metaphors have the power to create a new reality. This can begin to happen when we start to comprehend our experience in terms of a metaphor, and it becomes a deeper reality when we begin to act in terms of it. If a new metaphor enters the conceptual system that we base our actions on, it will alter that conceptual system and the perceptions and actions that the system gives rise to. Much of cultural change arises from the introduction of new metaphorical concepts and the loss of old ones. For example, the Westernization of cultures throughout the world is partly a matter of introducing the time is money metaphor into those cultures.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 19]

Animal damage control advocates often characterize game animals as pest species. Deer, for instance, do not kill farm animals but are blamed for destroying gardens, bringing disease, causing car accidents, and wreaking other forms of damage in suburbs. So sport hunters are allowed to kill deer with public support ─ after all, no one wants to be involved in a collision with a deer. Unfortunately for deer, hunting does not necessarily control their populations. They can rebound soon after hunting season due to lessened competition for resources. And, of course, the animal damage control measures that wiped out many of their natural predators also play a role in their large numbers. There are numerous methods to prevent the damage that deer can cause, such as more responsible driving, speed limits, warning signs, roadside reflectors, as well as the use of fencing along roadways. Yet the fact remains that as long as developers continue to build in suburban areas, humans and wildlife will come into contact. Sadly, animal damage control programs have just one way of solving these problems ─ hunting.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 20]

A gene can increase in frequency by making its bearers more likely than nonbearers to perform some fitness-enhancing behavior. For example, females of many species choose a mate based on the quality of male courtship displays. If the courtship displays of males differ in quality and a genetic difference underlies the display difference, the gene for the superior display will increase in frequency. Of course, courtship behaviors are not the only behaviors that affect fitness. If parents differ in the quantity of care they give to their offspring, if the quantity of care affects the viability of offspring, and if a genetic difference underlies this difference in parental care, then the gene for higher quantity care will increase in frequency. So, as long as a gene makes some fitness-enhancing behavior more likely, that gene will increase in frequency in a population, and as a result the behavior may increase in frequency as well. For this reason, biologists frequently say that, from the standpoint of evolutionary biology, "behavioral traits are like any other class of characters."

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 21]

A mark of postmodernity is the increasing mobility, both voluntary and forced, of human populations around the world. The migration of whole societies, the problem of refugees, the incorporation of migrant workers, have created a global, multicultural society that challenges the ability of any nation to define a reasonably homogeneous cultural identity or a set of cultural norms. The case of the failure of America's "melting pot" image is a telling example. Although the United States has always been a nation of immigrants, it managed, at least until World War II, to maintain a sense of itself as a whole, a European-derived, English-speaking nation. But new migrations ― Asian, African, and Latino ─ have challenged this image and made it almost impossible to define a central cultural identity for the nation. Moreover, the American experience has become the norm in other parts of the world as well. People's identities have become fractured, pluralized, and hybridized, and populations that were silent and marginalized in the past have suddenly moved to the center of the historical and cultural stage.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 22]

Human impacts are the most direct in the upper 500 meters of the ocean as commercial fishing is not conducted in deeper waters. Indeed, geological extraction and construction of ports and windmill farms are typically conducted in waters of 50 meters depth or less. In shallow and nearshore waters human impacts are palpable, even in remote parts of the world. Animal life in Antarctic waters is abundant and has been protected from commercial use for decades, yet hunting in the early part of the twentieth century changed the ecosystem to a degree that it can no longer be considered a pristine ecosystem. This is not to say that there are not pristine-like nearshore waters left on Earth. A case may be made for the northwest Hawaii islands, which have never been inhabited by humans and only very rarely have experienced fishing expeditions. Such locations are few ─ in fact, probably less than 1% of the ocean surface is fully protected against fishing or other kinds of disturbing activities.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 23]

In a simple experiment conducted by Michael Ross, Cathy McFarland, and Garth Fletcher, college students received a persuasive message arguing the importance of frequent tooth brushing. After receiving the message, they changed their attitudes toward tooth brushing. Needless to say, this is not surprising. But here's what was surprising: Later that same day in a different situation, the students were asked, "How many times have you brushed your teeth in the past 2 weeks?" Those who received the message recalled that they brushed their teeth far more frequently than did students in the control condition. The students were not attempting to deceive the researcher; there was no reason for them to lie. They were simply using their new attitudes as a heuristic to help them remember. In a sense, they needed to believe that they had always behaved in a sensible and reasonable manner ― even though they had just now discovered what that sensible behavior might be.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 24~25]

When it comes to the common belief fallacy in your own life, remember that scientists are always trying to reach better conclusions, and that is something you don't do as an individual, at least not by default, and by extension it is something your institutions are not so great at either. You don't seek out what science calls the null hypothesis. That is, when you believe in something, you rarely seek out evidence to the contrary to see how it matches up with your assumptions. That's the source of urban legends, folklore, superstitions, and all the rest. Having doubts is not your strong suit. Corporations and other institutions rarely set aside a division tasked with paying attention to the faults of the agency. Unlike in science, most human undertakings leave out a special department devoted to looking for the worst in the operation ─ not just a complaint department, but a department that asks if the organization is on the right path. Every human effort should systematically pause and ask if it is currently mistaken. To beat your brain, you need that department constantly operating in your cranium. You would do well to borrow from the lessons of the scientific method and apply them in your personal life. In the background, while you sew and golf and browse cat videos, science is fighting against your stupidity. No other human enterprise is fighting as hard, or at least not fighting and winning.

[2025 수특영어: Test 03 – 26~28]

Jill was quite a sickly child, but she had always wanted to be like Madeleine Sharp, a famous dancer. One day Jill and her mom went to Miss Madeleine Sharp's class for young ladies in the ballroom of the Bell Hotel in Bromley. Madeleine Sharp was tall, slim, and powerful. There were eight other little girls, who all hung on Madeleine's every word and jumped to obey her instructions. Madeleine came over to Jill and said, "Right, let's see what Jill can do." Jill began with the classic first rule for all dancers: How to hold the bar. Madeleine Sharp said, "Never grip it, dear." Madeleine firmly continued to say to Jill, "Rest your hand lightly on it. It is there to steady you, not as a lifeline. Turn your feet out. This must not be feet only, but start in the hips so that your whole leg is turned out. Good." Madeleine Sharp wanted to explore her possibilities as a dancer. So she asked the pianist to play a lyrical piece of music and said, "Jill, dear, let me see you run and enjoy yourself and see what the music tells you to do." Jill didn't know it at the time, but Madeleine Sharp was highly regarded and entry to her classes was quite competitive as a result. So Jill's mom was extremely nervous while her daughter was dancing, especially as some of the other mothers stayed there to see how this new child was going to do. Jill got carried away with the music and flew around the room. After a minute or so Madeleine clapped her hands and Jill stopped in front of her, panting and looking up at her, full of hope. Madeleine put her arm round Jill, returned to Jill's mom and said, "I'd like to teach Jill very much. Can you come again on Friday?" They exchanged a few more words but Jill didn't hear a thing. Jill's head was too alive with the events of the afternoon and the thrilling new world before her. She was barely conscious of her mom saying, "Hurry up, darling. Let's get home and tell your dad!" But as her voice woke Jill up, Jill put her arms round her mom.